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In this chapter, the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase will be addressed, which is fundamental in quantifying environmental impacts according to the goal and scope of each study, as we saw in Chap. 3: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)—Definition of Goals and Scope.

A Avaliação de Ciclo de Vida (ACV) é um método estruturado, compreensivo e padronizado a nível internacional que quantifica informações sobre emissões, recursos consumidos e impactos ambientais potenciais de produtos através do seu ciclo de vida. Uma das fases do estudo, a Avaliação de Impacto do Ciclo de Vida (AICV), refere-se ao processo quantitativo e/ou qualitativo aplicado na avaliação dos impactos associados ao inventário do ciclo de vida. Dentre os impactos ambientais abordados na AICV estão aqueles relacionados ao uso da terra, sendo avaliados segundo duas vertentes: impactos sobre a biodiversidade e impactos sobre Serviços Ecossistêmicos. A modelagem dos impactos dos serviços ecossistêmicos na ACV ainda apresenta limitações e alguns erros conceituais como, por exemplo, não avaliar de fato os benefícios fornecidos ao homem. Além disso, um dos grandes desafios na ACV refere-se à diferenciação espacial nos procedimentos metodológicos de AICV, sobretudo para impactos devido ao uso da terra. Assim, o principal objetivo desde estudo é discutir a inserção do conceito de serviços ecossistêmicos na ACV e obter fatores de caracterização de impactos em serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados ao solo para a AICV, aplicáveis de maneira regionalizada para o Brasil. A revisão de literatura e comparação do mecanismo ambiental para os impactos do uso da terra na AICV com o modelo em cascata de serviços ecossistêmicos possibilitou o desenvolvimento de um novo modelo conceitual para serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados solo. Cada uma das etapas do modelo de cascata foi alinhada à terminologia da ACV para coincidir com os níveis de modelagem de ponto intermediário e de danos ao mesmo tempo considerando os principais processos, funções, serviços, benefícios e valores relacionados ao solo. Além disso, foram calculados fatores de caracterização para impactos aos serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados à fertilidade do solo através da aplicação de um modelo de caracterização de AICV espacialmente diferenciado. O procedimento metodológico envolveu (i) a definição do mecanismo ambiental, tendo como indicador o teor de Carbono Orgânico do Solo (COS), (ii) a definição da Vegetação Natural Potencial como situação de referência e (iii) a definição das unidades biogeográficas de análise denominadas Associação Solo-Vegetação (ASV). Com base nestes parâmetros, foram calculados os estoques de COS para 32 classes diferentes de uso da terra e os estoques de COS para as situações referência, necessários para o cálculo dos impactos resultantes do uso da terra. Foram calculados e disponibilizados mais de três mil fatores de caracterização aos usuários de ACV, aplicáveis em 32 classes diferentes de uso da terra para 74 unidades biogeográficas (ASV). Além desses, foram obtidos fatores de caracterização também para as 27 unidades federativas do país, que apesar de estarem agregados em divisões políticas, levam em consideração dados regionais de COS. Por fim, os resultados e discussões deste trabalho contribuem na integração de dois campos de estudo e podem auxiliar ao melhor entendimento do sistema de produtos, não apenas focando em danos ambientais, mas também possibilitando a identificação de impactos positivos e agregação de valor. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a structured, comprehensive and standardized method at international level that quantifies information on emissions, resources consumed and potential environmental impacts of products through their life cycle. One of it phases, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), refers to the quantitative and/or qualitative process applied in assessing the impacts associated with the life cycle inventory. Among the environmental impacts addressed in LCIA are those related to land use, being evaluated according to two pathways: impacts on biodiversity and impacts on ecosystem services. The ecosystem services impact modelling on LCA still presents limitations and some conceptual errors, such as not actually evaluating the benefits provided to humans. In addition, one of the major challenges in LCA relates to the spatial differentiation in LCIA methodological procedures, especially for impacts due to land use. Thus, the main goal of the present study is to discuss the ecosystem services concept integration in LCA and obtain characterization factors of soil-related ecosystem services impacts, regionally applicable to Brazil. The literature review and the LCA environmental mechanism of land use impacts and the cascade model of ecosystem services comparison allowed the development of a new conceptual model for soil-related ecosystem services. Each one of these steps in the cascade model was aligned with the LCA\'s terminology to match the midpoint and endpoint modelling levels while considering the key processes, functions, services, benefits, and values related to the soil. In addition, characterization factors for ecosystem services related to soil fertility were calculated applying a spatially differentiated characterization model. The methodological procedure involved the (i) environmental mechanism definition, establishing the Soil Organic Carbon content (SOC) as an indicator, (ii) the definition of Potential Natural Vegetation as a reference situation and (iii) the definition of the biogeographic analysis units denominated Soil Vegetation Association (SVA). Based on these parameters, SOC stocks were calculated for 32 different land use classes and SOC stocks for reference situations allowing the calculation of impacts resulting from land use. More than two thousand characterization factors were calculated, being available to LCA users, applicable in 32 different land use classes to 74 biogeographic units (SVA). In addition, characterization factors were also obtained for the 27 Brazilian federative units, which, although aggregated in political divisions, consider SOC regional data. Finally, the results and discussions of this study contribute to the integration of two scientific domains and help to better understand the product system, not only focusing on environmental damages, but also enabling the identification of positive impacts and value aggregation.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is the main technique for evaluate the environmental impacts of product life cycles. A major challenge in the field of LCA is spatial and temporal differentiation in Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) methods, especially impacts resulting from land occupation and land transformation. Land use characterization modeling has advanced considerably over the last two decades and many approaches have recently included crucial aspects such as geographic differentiation. Nevertheless, characterization models have so far not been systematically reviewed and evaluated to determine their applicability to South America. Given that Brazil is the largest country in South America, this paper analyzes the main international characterization models currently available in the literature, with a view to recommending regionalized models applicable on a global scale for land use life cycle impact assessments, and discusses their feasibility for regionalized assessment in Brazil. The analytical methodology involves classification based on the following criteria: midpoint/endpoint approach, scope of application, area of data collection, biogeographical differentiation, definition of recovery time and reference situation; followed by an evaluation of thirteen scientific robustness and environmental relevance subcriteria. The results of the scope of application are distributed among 25% of the models developed for the European context, and 50% have a global scope. There is no consensus in the literature about the definition of parameters such biogeographical differentiation and reference situation, and our review indicates that 35% of the models use ecoregion division while 40% use the concept of potential natural vegetation. Four characterization models show high scores in terms of scientific robustness and environmental relevance. These models are recommended for application in land use life cycle impact assessments, and also to serve as references for the development or adaptation of regional methodological procedures for Brazil.

The assessment of ecosystem services (ES) is fragmentally covered by existing environmental decision support tools that aim to inform on the potential environmental impacts of supply chains and their products, such as the well-known life cycle assessment (LCA) method. Under the frame of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative flagship project on life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) indicators, a dedicated subtask force was constituted to consolidate the evaluation of ES in LCA. As an outcome of the activities promoted by this subtask force, the present contribution aims to illustrate the progress towards consensus building in the LCA domain concerning the assessment of human related impacts on ecosystems and their capacity to provide services for human well-being. First, the study proposes a general framework for integrating ES approaches into the cause-effect chain used in LCIA, designed according to a cascade model for ES. Then, an application of the proposed LCIA framework is shown through a case study on rice production modelled for three different locations in the world (i.e. USA, China, India). The cascade model, used here to depict LCIA cause-effect chains, is formulated according to sound scientific arguments grounded on the ES literature, which relate the effect of changes on ecosystems due to human impacts (e.g. land use changes, eutrophication, freshwater depletion, …) with the increase or decrease in the quality and/or quantity of supplied ES. These impacts and damages are reflected into specific areas of protection for natural resources and ecosystem quality, and eventually back on the technosphere system in the form of costs or benefits associated with the functional unit (produced rice in this specific case). Based on this experience, a set of recommendations is provided on how to address current gaps in the analysis of ES within the LCA framework.

Circular Economy (CE) currently represents a viable option for countries, governments, academia and society to transform the linear and semi-circular materials and energy flows into circular flows and obtain better sustainable benefits. In this sense, Industrial Ecology (IE) with its tools can assist in the transition to CE. Therefore, the main goal of this paper is to present the theoretical contribution of IE to CE. The methodology used was based on bibliometric analysis in the international context. With regard to the bibliometric analyses, we have identified that the evolution of CE would not be possible without the existence of IE concepts and tools, especially with tools such as Industrial Symbiosis (IS) and Eco-Industrial Parks (EIPs). Furthermore, three levels of IE contribution to CE were identified, such as: conceptual, technical and policy aspects. Finally, new CE based researches from an IE perspective with bibliometric analysis and with co-citation networks are possible, including, solid waste management and policies.

Ecosystem Services (ES) are the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being, which include provision of food and water, regulation of flood and erosion processes, soil formation and non-material benefits such as recreation. The integration of ES impact modeling in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) still has limitations regarding the typology embodied and some conceptual errors in not actually evaluating the benefits provided by ES. In this context, soil is an important resource and provides a wide diversity of ES. Therefore, this article aims to: (i) Review the evolution of ES assessment in LCA and the current methods used to study the biophysical aspects of ES; (ii) Compare the ES cascade model and LCA environmental mechanism for land use impacts; and (iii) Improve and synthesize a new conceptual framework for soil-ES assessment in LCA studies. Results show that the cascade model provides a useful framework for operationalizing ES assessment and should integrate LCA. Thus, this study proposes a new conceptual framework for soil-ES including the main soil processes, functions, services, benefits and values. Each of these cascade model steps is aligned with LCA terminology in order to match the usual midpoint or endpoint levels of modeling. Future works should focus on new indicators to measure the supply of ES and their benefit to humans as well as indicators to their value.

Sugarcane bagasse is one of the main agro-industrial residues which can be used to produce wood-based panels. However, more investigations related to its environmental performance assessment are needed, focusing on questions such as: Does it provide environmental benefits? What are its main environmental impacts? Could it substitute wood as raw material? Accordingly, this paper presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) study of particle board manufactured with sugarcane bagasse residues. The cradle-to-gate assessment of 1 m3 of particle board made with sugarcane bagasse (PSB) considered three main subsystems: bagasse generation, bagasse distribution, and PSB production. For the inventory of PSB, dataset from two previous LCA studies related to the conventional particle board production and the ethanol life cycle for the Brazilian context were used. The allocation criterion for the bagasse generation subsystem was 9.08 % (economic base). The potential environmental impact phase was assessed by applying the CML and USEtox methods. PSB was compared with the conventional particle board manufactured in Brazil by the categories of the CML and USETox, and including land use indicators. Finally, two scenarios were analyzed to evaluate the influence of the allocation criteria and the consumption of sugarcane bagasse. All hotspots identified by CML and USETox methods are mainly related to the PSB production subsystem (24–100 % of impacts) due to heavy fuel oil, electricity, and urea-formaldehyde resin supply chain. The bagasse generation subsystem was more relevant to the eutrophication category (75 % of impacts). The bagasse distribution subsystem was not relevant because the impacts on all categories were lower than 1 %. PSB can substitute the conventional particle board mainly because of its lower contribution to abiotic depletion and ecotoxicity. Regarding land use impacts, PSB showed lower values according to all indicators (38–40 % of all impacts), which is explained by the lower demand for land occupation in comparison to that of the traditional particle board. PSB can replace the traditional particle board due to its better environmental performance. The analysis of the economic allocation criterion was relevant only for the EP category, being important to reduce diesel and N-based fertilizers use during sugarcane cultivation. Regarding the influence of the sugarcane bagasse consumption, it is suggested that the sugarcane bagasse be mixed up to 75 % during particle board manufacturing so that good quality properties and environmental performance of panels can be provided.

The leishmaniasis, considered a neglected disease, is caused by a protozoan from the genus Leishmania. There is an urgent need to search for safer, cheaper, and more effective treatments against leishmaniasis. In this context, transition metal complex activities have been studied, as palladium, which has become an interesting alternative as metal-based drugs. In this study, three new palladium(II) complexes, obtained from two imine ligands, were synthesized and characterized by elemental analyses, infrared and 1H NMR spectroscopies. The in vitro evaluation of ligands and complexes has been tested on promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis and its cytotoxicity on murine macrophages. All complexes exhibited a leishmanicidal activity on promastigotes and amastigotes forms. The ligands activities were improved after coordination with palladium, and the replacement by some substituents has increased the leishmanicidal activity even more. Complexes with chloride and thiocyanate showed an improvement of activity when compared to their respective ligands, with better selectivity index (SI > 1) and less damage on mammalian cells when compared to a reference drug pentamidine. These compounds are promising agents for leishmaniasis treatment, and the results emphasize the potential properties of compounds with transition metal for medical applications.

Infections by protozoans of the genus Leishmania are the major worldwide health problem, with high endemicity in developing countries. The drugs of choice for the treatment of leishmaniasis are the pentavalent antimonials, which exert renal and cardiac toxicity. Thus, there is a strong need for safer and more effective treatments against leishmaniasis. The present study was designated to evaluate, by a bioguided assay, the leishmanicidal activity of extracts (hexane, ethyl-acetate and ethanolic) and molecules both obtained by means of extraction from pericarps of Garcinia brasiliensis fruits. The hexane extract presented the best activity on the extracellular (promastigotes) and intracellular (amastigotes) forms of Leishmania (L.) amazonensis, when compared to the other extracts. Based on these findings, this extract was fractionated by silica gel column chromatography, affording nine fractions then resulting in three purified prenylated benzophenones - 7-epi-clusianone (1), garciniaphenone (2) and guttiferone-a (3). They showed significant activity on Leishmania (L.) amazonensis, and little toxicity for mammalian cells. Structure-activity relationships were evaluated showing that the IC(50) value displayed is dependent of prenyl groups and phenolic hydroxyls number, and inversely proportional to the hydrophobicity. Our results are promising, showing that these compounds are biologically active on Leishmania (L.) amazonensis.

O principal instrumento de avaliação dos impactos ambientais do ciclo de vida de produtos é a Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Uma de suas fases, a Avaliação de Impacto do Ciclo de Vida (AICV) refere-se ao processo quantitativo e/ou qualitativo aplicado na caracterização e avaliação dos impactos associados ao inventário do ciclo de vida. Dentre os impactos ambientais avaliados, estão aqueles relacionados ao uso da terra. Um dos grandes desafios no campo da ACV refere-se diferenciação espacial e temporal nos métodos de AICV, sobretudo para impactos devido à transformação e ocupação da terra. Torna-se necessário o desenvolvimento de modelos de caracterização e/ou adaptação daqueles já existentes de maneira que possam considerar as características ambientais regionais de cada país, visando à obtenção de resultados mais consistentes e precisos. Assim, este trabalho tem o objetivo de analisar a aplicabilidade e a regionalização dos principais modelos de caracterização de impactos do uso da terra para a Avaliação do Impacto do Ciclo de Vida no Brasil. Para tanto foi conduzida uma revisão bibliográfica sistemática, a qual subsidiou a descrição e análise de dezesseis principais modelos de caracterização para avaliação de impactos do uso da terra. Durante a etapa de análise, as informações referentes a cada modelo foram classificadas de acordo com diferentes critérios, como: abordagem midpoint/endpoint, área de cobertura, área de coleta dos dados, diferenciação bio-geográfica, tempo de recuperação, situação de referência, robustez científica e relevância ambiental. Observou-se que seis modelos, de abrangência de aplicação global, apresentam robustez científica e relevância ambiental satisfatória para a avaliação dos impactos nos serviços ecossistêmicos e na biodiversidade: Brandão & Milà i Canals (2013); Müller-Wenk & Brandão (2010); Nunez et al. (2010); Saad, Koellner, Margni (2013); Souza (2010); Souza et al. (2013). Outra contribuição do trabalho refere-se às recomendações para a adaptação de modelos de caracterização, visando a regionalização, para a qual uma série de elementos-chave deve ser considerada, tais como o mecanismo ambiental modelado, a tipologia de uso do solo, o nível de diferenciação bio-geográfica usado para o cálculo dos fatores de caracterização e a situação de referência utilizada. The main technique for assessing the environmental impacts of the product life cycle is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). One of its phases, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) refers to quantitative and / or qualitative process applied to the characterization and assessment of impacts associated with the life cycle inventory. Among the environmental impacts evaluated in LCA are those related to land use. A major challenge in the field of LCA refers to spatial and temporal differentiation in LCIA methods, especially for impacts due to land occupation and land transformation. It becomes necessary to develop models for the characterization and / or adapting existing ones so that they can consider regional environmental characteristics of each country, in order to obtain more consistent and accurate results. Therefore, this work aims to analyze the applicability and regionalization of the land use impacts characterization models in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment in Brazil. To achieve that, a systematic literature review was performed, which subsidized the description and analysis of sixteen major characterization models for land use impact assessment. During the analysis, the information regarding each model were classified according to different criteria, such as midpoint/ endpoint approach, coverage area, area of data collection, bio-geographical differentiation, recovery time, reference land use situation, scientific robustness and environmental relevance. It was observed that six models, with a global scope, present scientific robustness and environmental relevance sufficient for the assessment of impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services: Brandão & Milà i Canals (2013); Müller-Wenk & Brandão (2010); Nunez et al. (2010); Saad, Koellner, Margni (2013); Souza (2010); Souza et al. (2013). Another contribution of this work were the recommendations for adapting characterization models, for which a number of key elements must be considered, such as the modelled land use impact pathways, the land use typology, the level of bio-geographical differentiation used for the characterization factors and the reference land use situation.