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Human-made and natural disasters can result in severely fragmented, compromised, and commingled human remains. The related disaster victim identification (DVI) operations are invariably challenging, with the state of the remains potentially precluding some identifications. Practitioners involved in these DVI operations will routinely face logistical, practical, and ethical challenges. This review provides information and guidance derived from first-hand experiences to individuals tasked with managing DVI operations with fragmented human remains. We outline several key issues that should be addressed during disaster preparedness planning and at the outset of an operation, when incident-specific strategies are developed. Specific challenges during recovery and examination of fragmented remains are addressed, highlighting the importance of experienced specialists at the scene and in the mortuary. DNA sample selection and sampling techniques are reviewed, as well as downstream effects of commingling and contamination, which can complicate reconciliation and emphasise the need for rigorous quality control. We also touch on issues that may arise during communication with families. While recommendations are provided, they are not intended as proscriptive policy but rather as an addition to the general recommendations given in the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) DVI Guide, to inform preparative discussions between government officials, judiciary, police, and forensic specialists.Key pointsA DVI operation for an incident characterised by many fragmented and otherwise compromised human remains poses specific challenges that may prolong and complicate identifications.Specialists should be consulted at the outset to address key issues related to the aim and extent of the operation.Specialist expertise in handling compromised human remains is indispensable at the scene, in the mortuary, during reconciliation, and for quality control.Continuous consultation between representatives from government, the judiciary, law enforcement, the media, and various forensic specialists will prevent unnecessary delay and facilitate accurate and timely communication.

The optimum skeletal element and bone tissue type to select for maximum nuclear DNA yield has been recently investigated. We employed X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to evaluate the elemental composition (atomic percentage) of cancellous and cortical bone tissue types to: (1) evaluate the use of XPS for surface chemistry analysis of cancellous bone tissue/medullary contents as a novel approach to discriminate biological tissues from diagenetic infiltrations (e.g., soil) among trabeculae, and (2) present the methodology as a potential tool for refining bone sample selection for nuclear DNA analysis. XPS data from modern bone specimens (n = 46) confirmed that cortical-dominant bones contained higher elemental composition of oxygen (p = 0.012), calcium (p < 0.0001), and phosphorous (p < 0.0001) and lower amounts of carbon (p < 0.0001) relative to cancellous-dominant samples. Data were presented as a ratio of carbon to calcium + phosphorus, revealing higher carbon content and lower calcium/phosphorus in cancellous- versus cortical-dominant bones (ratios of 20.0 ± 11.3 and 8.6 ± 5.6, respectively (p < 0.0001)). Results indicated that primarily cancellous bones contain higher amounts of soft tissue which explains their yielding higher-quality nuclear DNA. We further hypothesized that aluminum is a suitable elemental marker for soil infiltration. One buried donor had visibly soil-stained bones, with a cuneiform exhibiting detectable aluminum content (1.0% versus ∼3.8% in a location-matched soil control). Our results shed new light on the relationship between nuclear DNA yield and cancellous bone/medullary contents, thus informing bone-sample selection for nuclear DNA analysis in forensic contexts.

Vertebrate decomposition processes have important ecological implications and, in the case of human decomposition, forensic applications. Animals, especially domestic pigs (Sus scrofa), are frequently used as human analogs in forensic decomposition studies. However, recent research shows that humans and pigs do not necessarily decompose in the same manner, with differences in decomposition rates, patterns, and scavenging. The objective of our study was to extend these observations and determine if human and pig decomposition in terrestrial settings have different local impacts on soil biogeochemistry and microbial activity. In two seasonal trials (summer and winter), we simultaneously placed replicate human donors and pig carcasses on the soil surface and allowed them to decompose. In both human and pig decomposition-impacted soils, we observed elevated microbial respiration, protease activity, and ammonium, indicative of enhanced microbial ammonification and limited nitrification in soil during soft tissue decomposition. Soil respiration was comparable between summer and winter, indicating similar microbial activity; however, the magnitude of the pulse of decomposition products was greater in the summer. Using untargeted metabolomics and lipidomics approaches, we identified 38 metabolites and 54 lipids that were elevated in both human and pig decomposition-impacted soils. The most frequently detected metabolites were anthranilate, creatine, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, taurine, xanthine, N-acetylglutamine, acetyllysine, and sedoheptulose 1/7-phosphate; the most frequently detected lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine and monogalactosyldiacylglycerol. Decomposition soils were also significantly enriched in metabolites belonging to amino acid metabolic pathways and the TCA cycle. Comparing humans and pigs, we noted several differences in soil biogeochemical responses. Soils under humans decreased in pH as decomposition progressed, while under pigs, soil pH increased. Additionally, under pigs we observed significantly higher ammonium and protease activities compared to humans. We identified several metabolites that were elevated in human decomposition soil compared to pig decomposition soil, including 2-oxo-4-methylthiobutanoate, sn-glycerol 3-phosphate, and tryptophan, suggesting different decomposition chemistries and timing between the two species. Together, our work shows that human and pig decomposition differ in terms of their impacts on soil biogeochemistry and microbial decomposer activities, adding to our understanding of decomposition ecology and informing the use of non-human models in forensic research.

In the USA, 100 000 people go missing every year. Difficulty in the rapid identification of sites of human decomposition complicates the recovery of bodies, especially in forests. We propose that spectral responses in tree and shrub canopies could act as guides to find cadavers using remote sensing platforms for societal benefit.

In mass fatality events, the need to identify large numbers of deceased persons using DNA can be a significant drain on already overburdened forensic practitioners, both in the field setting and the laboratory. The laboratory may be required to extract DNA from a variety of postmortem sample types, family or direct reference samples related to the missing, and perform matching of these results in a short period of time. While most forensic institutions are well equipped to handle both family and direct reference samples, postmortem samples such as bone or heterogeneous tissue samples can be difficult for labs to analyze. We have devised an easily deployable, efficient, and inexpensive method for collecting postmortem DNA samples on commercially available DNA preservation cards (“FTA ® ” cards). FTA ® cards are already widely used in forensic labs and are convenient for shipping due to their small volume and stability at room temperature. We evaluated the suitability of a protocol involving swabbing of incisions made on cadavers and sample deposition onto FTA ® cards over various postmortem intervals and under different environmental conditions. Each trial took place during a different point in the calendar year to evaluate the effects of seasonal weather patterns and temperature on decomposition, DNA yield, and rates of DNA degradation. To further account for the effects of seasonality (temperature and humidity), the progression of body decomposition was recorded following the Total Body Score (TBS) method [1]. DNA degradation was assessed either through STR amplification of 1.2 mm FTA punches or DNA extraction from 3.0 mm punches followed by real-time PCR quantification and STR amplification and genotyping. No consistent relationship was observed between postmortem interval and DNA degradation. Instead, the TBS score, which captures the stage of body decomposition, was shown to correlate well with DNA quantity. A TBS of 15 and below consistently yielded strong partial or full profiles (20 STR loci and Amelogenin using the PowerPlex 21 System) from all individuals from either 1.2 mm or 3.0 mm punches. Transfer of sample swabs to FTA cards is shown to be a simple and effective method for both field and laboratory operations over a range of conditions that can be evaluated by field forensic practitioners based on a body decomposition score. The approach could be beneficially integrated into mass fatality response plans.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to reveal difficulties associated with identifying child victims of the 2004 South-East Asia Tsunami at the Thai Tsunami Victim Identification (TTVI) operation in Phuket and explores two strategies that increased child identifications. Design/methodology/approach Data allowing comparison of identification proportions between adult and child (defined as ⩽16 years old) victims of six nationalities and the forensic methods used to establish identification were used in this study. Findings The first 100 days of the operation revealed that the proportion of adult identifications far outweighed the proportion of child identifications. Moreover, the younger the child, the longer the identification process took (p Originality/value The implementation of these two strategies at the TTVI helped to overcome initial complexities, namely, the lack of ante-mortem and PM material, and increased child identifications.

Different animal species have been used as proxies for human remains in decomposition studies for decades, although few studies have sought to validate their use in research aimed at estimating the postmortem interval. This study examines 45 pig, rabbit, and human subjects placed in three seasonal trials at the Anthropology Research Facility. In an earlier paper, we found that overall decomposition trends did vary between species that could be due to differential insect and scavenger behavior. This study specifically examines if scavenger behavior differs by carrion species. Daily photographs, game camera photographs, written observations, and Total Body Score (TBS) documented scavenging and decomposition changes. Results show that raccoons were the most commonly observed vertebrate scavenger, that scavenging was most extensive in winter, and that certain human subjects were preferred over other humans and all non-human subjects. Finally, scavenging activity greatly reduces the accuracy of postmortem interval estimates based on TBS.

While nonhuman animal remains are often utilized in forensic research to develop methods to estimate the postmortem interval, systematic studies that directly validate animals as proxies for human decomposition are lacking. The current project compared decomposition rates among pigs, rabbits, and humans at the University of Tennessee's Anthropology Research Facility across three seasonal trials that spanned nearly 2 years. The Total Body Score (TBS) method was applied to quantify decomposition changes and calculate the postmortem interval (PMI) in accumulated degree days (ADD). Decomposition trajectories were analyzed by comparing the estimated and actual ADD for each seasonal trial and by fuzzy cluster analysis. The cluster analysis demonstrated that the rabbits formed one group while pigs and humans, although more similar to each other than either to rabbits, still showed important differences in decomposition patterns. The decomposition trends show that neither nonhuman model captured the pattern, rate, and variability of human decomposition.

Microbial colonization of bone is an important mechanism of post-mortem skeletal degradation. However, the types and distributions of bone and tooth colonizing microbes are not well characterized. It is unknown if microbial communities vary in abundance or composition between bone element types, which could help explain patterns of human DNA preservation. The goals of the present study were to (1) identify the types of microbes capable of colonizing different human bone types and (2) relate microbial abundances, diversity, and community composition to bone type and human DNA preservation. DNA extracts from 165 bone and tooth samples from three skeletonized individuals were assessed for bacterial loading and microbial community composition and structure. Random forest models were applied to predict operational taxonomic units (OTUs) associated with human DNA concentration. Dominant bacterial bone colonizers were from the phyla Proteobacteria (36%), Actinobacteria (23%), Firmicutes (13%), Bacteroidetes (12%), and Planctomycetes (4.4%). Eukaryotic bone colonizers were from Ascomycota (40%), Apicomplexa (21%), Annelida (19%), Basidiomycota (17%), and Ciliophora (14%). Bacterial loading was not a significant predictor of human DNA concentration in two out of three individuals. Random forest models were minimally successful in identifying microbes related to patterns of DNA preservation, complicated by high variability in community structure between individuals and body regions. This work expands on our understanding of the types of microbes capable of colonizing human bone and contributing to human skeletal DNA degradation.

Our ability to identify skeletal remains often relies on the quality and quantity of DNA extracted from bone and teeth. Current research on buried remains has been retrospective, and no study to our knowledge has comprehensively assessed both intra-individual and inter-individual variation in human skeletal DNA from all representative skeletal element types recovered from a burial. Three individuals were interred together in a single grave for four years. Following disinterment, skeletal DNA was extracted, quantified, and GlobalFiler™ results were produced from 49 bones per skeleton, representing all bone types. Multiple sites per bone were also tested to determine intra-bone variability. Co-extracted bacterial and fungal DNA were quantified to determine microbial loads in the bones. Results show that the small, cancellous bones of the feet outperformed other bones in terms of DNA yield, measured as nanograms per gram of bone powder, and short tandem repeat (STR) profile completeness. The cuneiforms, in particular, had consistently high human DNA yields for all three individuals. DNA yield varied by individual and depth within the grave, with the shallowest individual demonstrating the highest DNA yields While the feet exhibited the greatest variation in DNA yield across bone type and sampling site, they also demonstrated some of the highest DNA yields and the most complete STR profiles, evoking a re-evaluation of their use for skeletal DNA sampling and analysis.

Microbial colonization of bone is an important mechanism of postmortem skeletal degradation. However, the types and distributions of bone and tooth colonizing microbes are not well characterized. It is unknown if microbial communities vary in abundance or composition between bone element types, which could help explain differences in human DNA preservation. The goals of the present study were to (1) identify the types of microbes capable of colonizing different human bone types and (2) relate microbial abundances, diversity, and community composition to bone type and human DNA preservation. DNA extracts from 165 bone and tooth samples from three skeletonized individuals were assessed for bacterial loading and microbial community composition and structure. Random forest models were applied to predict operational taxonomic units (OTUs) associated with human DNA concentration. Dominant bacterial bone colonizers were from the phyla Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Planctomycetes. Eukaryotic bone colonizers were from Ascomycota, Apicomplexa, Annelida, Basidiomycota, and Ciliophora. Bacterial loading was not a significant predictor of human DNA concentration in two out of three individuals. Random forest models were minimally successful in identifying microbes related to human DNA concentration, which were complicated by high variability in community structure between individuals and body regions. This work expands on our understanding of the types of microbes capable of colonizing the postmortem human skeleton and potentially contributing to human skeletal DNA degradation.

Decomposing vertebrates, including humans, result in pronounced changes in surrounding soil biogeochemistry, particularly nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) availability, and alter soil micro- and macrofauna. However, the impacts of subsurface human decomposition, where oxygen becomes limited and microbial biomass is generally lower, are far less understood. The goals of this study were to evaluate the impact of human decomposition in a multi-individual, shallow (~70 cm depth) grave on soil biogeochemistry and soil microbial and nematode communities. Three individuals were interred and allowed to decay for four years. Soils were collected from two depths (0‒5 and 30‒35 cm) along linear transects radiating from the grave as well as from within and below (85‒90 cm depth) the grave during excavation to assess how decomposition affects soil properties. Along radiating surface transects, several extracellular enzymes rates and nematode richness increased with increasing distance from the grave, and likely reflect physical site disruption due to grave excavation and infill. There was no evidence of carcass-sourced C and N lateral migration from the grave, at least at 30‒35 cm depth. Within the grave, soils exhibited significant N-enrichment (e.g., ammonium, dissolved organic N), elevated electrical conductivity, and elevated respiration rates with depth. Soil biogeochemistry within the grave, particularly in the middle (30‒35 cm) and base (70‒75 cm depth), was significantly altered by human decomposition. Mean microbial gene abundances changed with depth in the grave, demonstrating increased microbial presence in response to ongoing decomposition. Human-associated Bacteroides were only detected at the base of the grave where anoxic conditions prevailed. Nematode community abundance and richness were reduced at 70‒75 cm and not detectable below 85‒90 cm. Further, we identified certain Plectus spp. as potential indicators of enrichment due to decomposition. Here we demonstrate that human decomposition influences soil biogeochemistry, microbes, and microfauna up to four years after burial.

Archaeological dental calculus has emerged as a rich source of ancient biomolecules, including proteins. Previous analyses of proteins extracted from ancient dental calculus revealed the presence of the dietary milk protein β-lactoglobulin, providing direct evidence of dairy consumption in the archaeological record. However, the potential for calculus to preserve other food-related proteins has not yet been systematically explored. Here we analyse shotgun metaproteomic data from 100 archaeological dental calculus samples ranging from the Iron Age to the post-medieval period (eighth century BC to nineteenth century AD) in England, as well as 14 dental calculus samples from contemporary dental patients and recently deceased individuals, to characterize the range and extent of dietary proteins preserved in dental calculus. In addition to milk proteins, we detect proteomic evidence of foodstuffs such as cereals and plant products, as well as the digestive enzyme salivary amylase. We discuss the importance of optimized protein extraction methods, data analysis approaches and authentication strategies in the identification of dietary proteins from archaeological dental calculus. This study demonstrates that proteomic approaches can robustly identify foodstuffs in the archaeological record that are typically under-represented due to their poor macroscopic preservation.

Unmarked graves are difficult to locate once the ground surface no longer shows visible evidence of disturbance, posing significant challenges to missing person investigations. This research evaluates the use of terrestrial LIDAR point data for measuring localized elevation change at human grave surfaces. Three differently sized human graves, one control-pit, and surrounding undisturbed ground, were scanned four times between February 2013 and November 2014 using a tripod-mounted terrestrial laser scanner. All the disturbed surfaces exhibited measurable and localized elevation change, allowing for separation of disturbed and undisturbed ground. This study is the first to quantify elevation changes to human graves over time and demonstrates that terrestrial LIDAR may contribute to multi-modal data collection approach to improve unmarked grave detection.

The Thai Tsunami Victim Identification operation was the largest disaster victim identification operation in history, involving 3,679 unidentified victims from 41 countries, and police and forensic scientists from over 30 countries. This paper evaluates the DNA response to the 26 December 2004 South-East Asia Tsunami, measuring its impact at different stages of the operation. Only 15 identifications were established using DNA during the first 5 months, compared to 307 by fingerprints, 1,266 by dental, and 11 by physical analysis. Critical obstacles, such as available ante-mortem and post-mortem DNA profiles, data management challenges, and automated DNA matching issues were impeding the DNA response. Recognizing and resolving the key issues hindering DNA identification resulted in increased DNA identifications during the middle and late stages of the operation.Consideration of victim demographics was crucial to understanding the impact of different identification methods during the operation. DNA ...

DNA collection from family members of the missing is a tenet for missing persons' and mass fatality investigations. Procedures for consenting family members are disparate, depending on the context supporting the reason for sample collection. While guidelines and best practices have been developed for handling mass fatalities and for identification of the missing, these guidelines do not address standard consent practices for living family members of potential victims. We examined the relevant U.S. laws, international guidelines and best practices, sampled consent forms currently used for DNA collection of family members, and drafted model language for a consent form to communicate the required and recommended information. We modeled the consent form on biobank consenting practices and tested the consent language among students and the general population for constructive feedback and readability. We also asked respondents to consider the options for DNA collection and either hypothetically agree or disagree. The model language presented here highlights information important to relay in consent processes and can serve as a foundation for future consent practices in mass fatalities and missing persons' investigations.

Though recent decades have seen a marked increase in research concerning the impact of human decomposition on the grave soil environment, the fate of human DNA in grave soil has been relatively understudied. With the purpose of supplementing the growing body of literature in forensic soil taphonomy, this study assessed the relative persistence of human DNA in soil over the course of decomposition. Endpoint PCR was used to assess the presence or absence of human nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, while qPCR was used to evaluate the quantity of human DNA recovered from the soil beneath four cadavers at the University of Tennessee's Anthropology Research Facility (ARF). Human nuclear DNA from the soil was largely unrecoverable, while human mitochondrial DNA was detectable in the soil throughout all decomposition stages. Mitochondrial DNA copy abundances were not significantly different between decomposition stages and were not significantly correlated to soil edaphic parameters tested. There was, however, a significant positive correlation between mitochondrial DNA copy abundances and the human associated bacteria, Bacteroides, as estimated by 16S rRNA gene abundances. These results show that human mitochondrial DNA can persist in grave soil and be consistently detected throughout decomposition.

Previous research has demonstrated significant sexual dimorphism in friction ridge skin characteristics. This study uses a novel method for measuring sexual dimorphism in finger ridge breadths to evaluate its utility as a sex estimation method from an unknown fingerprint. Beginning and ending in a valley, the width of ten parallel ridges with no obstructions or minutia was measured in a sample of 250 males and females (N = 500). The results demonstrate statistically significant differences in ridge breadth between males and females (p < 0.001), with classification accuracy for each digit varying from 83.2% to 89.3%. Classification accuracy for the pooled finger samples was 83.9% for the right hand and 86.2% for the left hand, which is applicable for cases where the digit number cannot be determined. Weight, stature, and to a lesser degree body mass index also significantly correlate with ridge breadth and account for the degree of overlap between males and females.

Molecular human identification has conventionally focused on DNA sampling from dense, weight-bearing cortical bone tissue, typically from femora or tibiae. A comparison of skeletal elements from three contemporary individuals demonstrated that elements with high quantities of cancellous bone yielded nuclear DNA at the highest rates, suggesting that preferentially sampling cortical bone may be suboptimal (Mundorff & Davoren, 2014). Despite these findings, the reason for the differential DNA yields between cortical and cancellous bone tissues remains unknown. The primary goal of this work is to ascertain whether differences in bone microstructure can be used to explain differential nuclear DNA yield among bone tissue types observed by Mundorff and Davoren (2014), with a focus on osteocytes and the three-dimensional (3D) quantification of their associated lacunae. Osteocytes and other bone cells are recognized to house DNA in bone tissue, thus examining the density of their lacunae may explain why nuclear DNA yield rates differ among bone tissue types. Lacunae were visualized and quantified using synchrotron radiation-based micro-Computed Tomographic imaging (SR micro-CT). Volumes of interest (VOIs) from cortical and cancellous bone tissues (n=129) were comparatively analyzed from the three skeletons sampled for Mundorff and Davoren's (2014) study. Analyses tested the primary hypothesis that the abundance and density of osteocytes (inferred from their lacunar spaces) vary between cortical and cancellous bone tissue types. Results demonstrated that osteocyte lacunar abundance and density vary between cortical and cancellous bone tissue types, with cortical bone VOIs containing a higher lacunar abundance and density. We found that the osteocyte lacunar density values are independent of nuclear DNA yield, suggesting an alternative explanation for the higher nuclear DNA yields from bones with greater quantities of cancellous bone tissue. The use of SR micro-CT allowed for a scale of analysis that revealed a high range of variation in lacunar abundance in both tissue types. Moreover, high-resolution SR micro-CT imaging revealed potential soft tissue remnants within marrow spaces not visible macroscopically. It is hypothesized that soft tissue remnants observed among the trabeculae of skeletal elements with high quantities of cancellous bone tissue are responsible for the high nuclear DNA yields. These findings have significant implications for bone-sample selection for nuclear DNA analysis in a forensic context when skeletal remains are recovered from the ground surface.

Forensic anthropologists have expertise in locating, identifying, recording, recovering, and analyzing differentially preserved human remains, including fragmentary, burned, buried, and other types of compromised human tissue. Therefore they play a critical role in disaster response. This chapter summarizes the contributions forensic anthropologists make to disaster victim identification (DVI). Historical contributions made by anthropologists to disaster responses are outlined and followed by a discussion of their specialized roles in each of the five phases that constitute DVI missions. Their diverse contributions highlight the value of incorporating forensic anthropologists into the DVI management structure.

INTRODUCTION: In 2001, American Airlines flight 587 crashed shortly after takeoff. All 260 people aboard and 5 people on the ground were killed. This study's objective was to explore the extent of victim injuries and fragmentation patterns along with their assumed seat locations as related to the crash event and the plane's structural damage. METHODS: There were 2058 body fragments recovered and, of those, 1750 have been identified. Autopsy reports detailing injuries and extent of fragmentation, flight manifest, and the NTSB Aircraft Accident Report were examined for correlations among injuries, seat location, and crash event. Using the AIS as a model, a fragmentation scale was designed to record injury location and severity, with a focus on the extremities. RESULTS: More whole bodies were recovered from victims seated on the plane's right side and back half. Conversely, significantly more fragments for victims seated on the plane's left side were recovered. The increased fragmentation from victims on the left side is an irregular pattern, particularly because the last information from the flight data recorder showed the plane's sideslip to the right. However, there are no data for the flight's final 13.6 s. Most eyewitnesses recount the plane rolling left before crashing. The increased fragmentation of victims seated on the left is consistent with structural damage from a left side impact, corroborating eyewitness accounts. CONCLUSIONS: Correlating victim injuries and fragmentation patterns, seat location, and the plane's structural damage can assist an investigation into plane crashes, particularly if flight data are missing. Language: en

This review offers a sampling of the kinds of public projects anthropologists launched in the immediate aftermath of 9/11, and it reflects on some of the ways in which that event has had a profound and lasting effect on the public aspects of our discipline. Rather than reviewing all of the public roles that anthropologists played following 9/11, we echo the deeply personal nature of the event by offering a selection of first-person reflections from anthropologists whose work was especially touched by the disaster. As readers will note, these accounts run the gamut from personal to intellectual reflection. Ultimately, our hope is that they highlight the unexpectedly wide range and depth of ways in which the cataclysmic events of September 11, 2001, have altered our lives as both public scholars and global citizens.

The international disaster victim identification (DVI) response to the Boxing Day tsunami, led by the Royal Thai Police in Phuket, Thailand, was one of the largest and most complex in DVI history. Referred to as the Thai Tsunami Victim Identification operation, the group comprised a multi-national, multi-agency, and multi-disciplinary team. The traditional DVI approach proved successful in identifying a large number of victims quickly. However, the team struggled to identify certain victims due to incomplete or poor quality ante-mortem and post-mortem data. In response to these challenges, a new 'near-threshold' DVI management strategy was implemented to target presumptive identifications and improve operational efficiency. The strategy was implemented by the DNA Team, therefore DNA kinship matches that just failed to reach the reporting threshold of 99.9% were prioritized, however the same approach could be taken by targeting, for example, cases with partial fingerprint matches. The presumptive DNA identifications were progressively filtered through the Investigation, Dental and Fingerprint Teams to add additional information necessary to either strengthen or conclusively exclude the identification. Over a five-month period 111 victims from ten countries were identified using this targeted approach. The new identifications comprised 87 adults, 24 children and included 97 Thai locals. New data from the Fingerprint Team established nearly 60% of the total near-threshold identifications and the combined DNA/Physical method was responsible for over 30%. Implementing the new strategy, targeting near-threshold cases, had positive management implications. The process initiated additional ante-mortem information collections, and established a much-needed, distinct "end-point" for unresolved cases.

Identifying victims from mass fatality events requires the synchronization of several processes including, but not limited to, remains recovery, antemortem information collection, mortuary processes, death certification, family assistance, and finally, repatriation. Many different forensic disciplines are involved in recovering and identifying disaster victims. In particular, anthropologists have increasingly been involved with disaster victim identification in various roles from recovery and mortuary personnel to, more recently, management positions. This chapter discusses one small aspect of the mortuary process, triage, and its interplay with other aspects of identifying highly fragmented and commingled human remains. Specifically, this chapter focuses on anthropologist-directed triage and how it differed during three distinct mass fatality incidents: the World Trade Center disaster, the crash of American Airlines Flight 587, and the crash of the Staten Island Ferry. Each of these incidents involved significant variation in the number of victims, the number of recovered human remains, their degree of fragmentation, the site characteristics, and the recovery processes. Each of these considerations affected the triage teams’ composition and duties.

Identification of contemporary human remains by DNA STR testing is mainly limited by the ability to isolate sufficient amounts of DNA from the skeletal samples. A key part of this work relies on selection of the skeletal element with the best chance of obtaining a DNA STR profile. DNA was extracted from 55 bone samples, from 3 recently skeletonized individuals, representing most element types in the human body. Comparison of DNA yields from samples within an individual showed that the small cancellous bones on average have much higher amounts of DNA per unit mass than dense cortical bones. Complete 16 locus STR profiles were obtained for all 3 individuals from 36 of the element types, 10 had full profiles for 2 of the 3 individuals, 3 had full profiles for 1 of the 3 and 5 did not have any full profiles. The sample types with the least STR loci were from the arms. Ten skeletal elements were tested from 12 additional skeletons ranging from 3–21 years post mortem interval (PMI). At increasing PMI the small cancellous bones continued to yield more DNA and STR loci than the cortical bones. These findings suggest that the current recommendation for selection of long cortical bone samples for DNA testing of skeletal remains should be re-evaluated.

This paper will provide mass fatality emergency planners, police, medical examiners, coroners and other Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) personnel ways to integrate forensic anthropologists into DVI operations and demonstrate how anthropological contributions have improved DVI projects. In mass disaster situations, anthropologists have traditionally been limited to developing biological profiles from skeletal remains. Over the past decade, however, anthropologists' involvement in DVI has extended well beyond this traditional role as they have taken on increasingly diverse tasks and responsibilities. Anthropological involvement in DVI operations is often dictated by an incident's specific characteristics, particularly events involving extensive fragmentation, commingling, or other forms of compromised remains. This paper will provide examples from recent DVI incidents to illustrate the operational utility of anthropologists in the DVI context. The points where it is most beneficial to integrate anthropologists into the DVI process include: (1) during recovery at the disaster scene; (2) at the triage station as remains are brought into the mortuary; and (3) in conducting the reconciliation process. Particular attention will be paid to quality control and quality assurance measures anthropologists have developed and implemented for DVI projects. Overall, this paper will explain how anthropological expertise can be used to increase accuracy in DVI while reducing the project's cost and duration.

The World Trade Center (WTC) victim identification effort highlights taphonomic influences on the degradation of DNA from victims of mass fatality incidents. This study uses a subset of the WTC-Human Remains Database to evaluate differential preservation of DNA by skeletal element. Recovery location, sex, and victim type (civilian, firefighter, or plane passenger) do not appear to influence DNA preservation. Results indicate that more intact elements, as well as elements encased in soft tissue, produced slightly higher identification rates than more fragmented remains. DNA identification rates by element type conform to previous findings, with higher rates generally found in denser, weight-bearing bones. However, smaller bones including patellae, metatarsals, and foot phalanges yielded rates comparable to both femora and tibiae. These elements can be easily sampled with a disposable scalpel, and thus reduce potential DNA contamination. These findings have implications for DNA sampling guidelines in future mass fatality incidents.

Identifying victims from mass fatality events requires the synchronization of several processes including, but not limited to, recovery, antemortem information collection, mortuary processes, death certification, family assistance, and finally, repatriation. This chapter will discuss one small aspect of the mortuary process, triage, and its interplay with other aspects of the process of identifying highly fragmented remains. Specifically, this paper will focus on anthropologist-directed triage and how it differed during the World Trade Center (WTC) disaster, the crash of American Airlines Flight 587 (Flight 587), and the crash of the Staten Island Ferry. Each of these incidents involved significant variation in the number of victims, the number of recovered human remains, their degree of fragmentation, site characteristics, and recovery processes. Each of these considerations affected the triage teams’ composition and duties.

This chapter proceeds in two sections. The first section provides a historical overview of the process used to identify victims’ remains from the WTC disaster. This was an evolving process that adjusted over time, as new techniques were developed to address novel challenges. The second section provides a series of case examples illustrating some mistakes encountered with the identification of WTC victims and how the problems were resolved. As discussed in the following sections, the science of DNA identification was pushed forward by the efforts and expertise of those working on this project. The overriding purpose of this chapter is to provide future practitioners and policymakers a means of learning from the adaptations made during the early months of the WTC identification project as they plan and implement their own programs to prepare for future events.

This case study demonstrates the importance of involving an anthropologist in forensic situations with decomposed remains. Anthropological consultation was used in conjunction with the comparison of antemortem and postmortem radiographs to establish positive identification of unknown, decomposed remains. The remains had no traditional identifying features such as fingerprints or dental. Through anthropological analysis, it was determined the decedent was male, between 20 and 23 years at time of death and c. 5'2'' tall. This information allowed for a presumptive identification and a request for antemortem radiographs. The missing person was identified comparing the spinous processes of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae between ante- and postmortem radiographs.