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Introduction Technological advances have introduced three-dimensional (3-D) printing as an option for creating tactile maps for people with visual impairments (that is, those who are blind or have low vision), diversifying the types of map products that are available. At the same time, it presents a challenge to map makers to implement designs across multiple production methods. We evaluated map symbols to determine their discriminability across three different materials: microcapsule paper, 3-D printer plastic, and embossed paper. Methods In a single session lasting less than 90 minutes, participants completed a matching task and provided informal feedback regarding their preferences. We measured speed and accuracy to establish discriminability of map symbols on each of the materials. Eighteen participants were recruited from a referred sample among attendees at the American Council of the Blind annual convention in 2013. Results Response times were significantly different across the three materials (p < 0.001). Without sacrificing accuracy, response times were faster for the 3-D printed graphics than for either the microcapsule paper (p < 0.001) or the embossed paper (p < 0.001). User preference was divided across the three materials. Some people disliked the “sharp” corners of the 3-D printed symbols, while others preferred their “crisp” edges. Discussion Our results demonstrate faster discriminability of a set of tactile symbols produced on a 3-D printer compared to those same symbols printed on microcapsule paper, the material for which the symbols were originally designed. Participant feedback reflected preferences both in favor of and against reading symbols produced on the 3-D printer. Implications for practitioners This article discusses the functional equivalence of tactile symbols produced across multiple production technologies. It addresses two considerations when using 3-D printing to make tactile maps: preparing digital files for printing and the printing work flow. Digital files ready for printing on each of the three materials are available for download (Brittell, Lobben, & Lawrence 2016).

This article explores the cognitive dimensions of spatial pattern identification in people who are blind or low vision using tactile graphics. We contend that spatial pattern identification is critical to the construction of an informative and rich environmental image, and insight into these cognitive skills can inform current practices in tactile map production and accessible cartography. This research investigates individual spatial thinking skills hypothesized to be components of spatial pattern identification. The findings suggest that Cartesian proximity and object differentiation are vital cognitive skills of spatial pattern identification and could potentially be exploited to communicate complex environmental knowledge in tactile reference maps. The relationship between prior map-reading training and test performance indicates a critical need for an increased presence of tactile cartographies and highlights future research opportunities. RESUME: L’article explore les dimensions cognitives de la reconnaissance des formes a l’aide de graphiques tactiles chez les personnes aveugles ou malvoyantes. Nous avancons que la reconnaissance des formes est essentielle a la construction d’une image riche et informative de l’environnement, et que l’etude des habiletes cognitives necessaires permettra d’eclairer les methodes de production de cartes tactiles et de cartes d’accessibilite. Nos recherches portent sur les capacites individuelles de raisonnement spatial que l’on croit ệtre a la base de la reconnaissance des formes. Les resultats laissent croire que la proximite et la differenciation des objets sont des habiletes cognitives essentielles a la reconnaissance des formes et pourraient permettre d’acquerir des connaissances complexes sur l’environnement grâce a des cartes tactiles. La relation entre une formation anterieure a la lecture de cartes et les resultats aux tests montre la necessite d’une utilisation accrue des cartes tactiles et met en lumiere des avenues de recherche potentielles.

Cartographers have been representing places and scenes for thousands of years. We know that there is not one single way to represent place. We can use a reference map, thematic map (not to mention all the different types), large scale, small scale, oblique and overhead remotely sensed image, hand-drawn cartoon maps, street view photographs, animated maps, and digital maps. We also know that the methods and then the resulting representations can be differentiated cartographically using established criteria. But, are these methods all equally effective in conveying a sense of place?We measure “effectiveness” by comparing activation differences in the parahippocampal place area when viewing different representations of place. The parahippocampal place area (PPA) is a region in the human brain that allows humans to recognize and characterize a place (or a representation of it) (Weiner et al., in press). The PPA is a functionally, as opposed to an anatomically, defined region. It overlaps several anatomical regions, including the parahippocampal cortex, the lingual gyrus, the collateral sulcus, and the fusiform gyrus (Figure 1) (Epstein, 2014). The place recognition function of the PPA has been well-documented (Weiner et al., in press; Epstein 2014, 2008; Baldassano et al. 2013; Aguirre et al., 1998; Epstein and Kanwisher, 1998), and we now know that this region is what allows humans to differentiate between a place and other objects such as faces, chairs, or apples.In this study, we measured the effect of cartographic representation on the human brain’s recognition of “place” by comparing the activation differences in the PPA. We compared four types of place representation: a street-view photograph of an urban environment, a drawn schematic similar to a subway-style map, a Google Maps street map, and a Google Maps satellite view. (Figure 2). The Google Maps images were used because they are common cartographic representations, and thus are likely representative of a general “map” condition.

Since the National Research Council (2006) report Learning to Think Spatially formalized geospatial thinking, researchers and educators have recognized the importance of investigating and understanding geospatial thinking. Conceptual frameworks have been developed and applied to individual research projects. Although useful in these contexts and potentially extendable to other related inquiries, they also overlap and conflict with one another. Moreover, the separate frameworks are built on different constructs, resulting in a disparate rather than a cohesive theoretical foundation for geospatial thinking. This article synthesizes existing frameworks and generates a model that represents conceptual advances and provides a foundation for research question generation.

This article presents research designed to investigate map use. Specifically, we interrogate the long-held assumption that people use maps for specific purposes and in specific ways and those purpo...

Pedestrian route planning presents unique challenges compared to relatively well established car routing applications. The challenges are even more pronounced when also considering a diverse user group, which includes people with disabilities. Existing research has identified environmental features that are important to pedestrians with disabilities, but there are still a number of outstanding problems that have hindered the development of a widespread, usable solution. We developed the EUG Access web application (http://geog.uoregon.edu/geocog/eugaccess) to implement an approach to pedestrian routing that incorporates environmental accessibility and responds to the needs and preferences of a diverse user population. This paper reviews related literature and reports our experience through three phases of development: personalization , route calculation, and interface design. It concludes by drawing attention to issues that we propose are critical to successfully incorporating environmental accessibility into future pedestrian routing applications.

The study reported here investigated the design and legibility of tactile thematic maps, focusing on symbolization and the comprehension of spatial patterns on the maps. The results indicate that discriminable and effective tactile thematic maps can be produced using classed data with a microcapsule paper production method. The participants demonstrated that they could describe the spatial data patterns that were displayed. ********** Thematic maps are cartographic representations of themes, such as population or income. These types of maps can show information about specific locations, give general information about spatial patterns, and be used to compare the patterns on two or more maps (Slocum, McMaster, Kessler, & Howard, 2005). The importance of this cartographic method is evident in the sheer volume of scholarly papers and books on thematic mapping that provide guidelines that inform both the theoretical and design components of making these types of maps for sighted map users. Research has focused on creating tactile map symbols and formalizing the techniques in tactile mapping, including the articulation of good practices (Tatham, 2003). However, the development and use of symbols for static tactile thematic maps has not been studied extensively. The lack of attention is not due to the absence of need, however; researchers and practitioners have expressed a clear need for the development of effective tactile thematic maps (Lobben, 2005). Even though thematic mapping has been a popular cartographic method for nearly 200 years, we cannot directly apply knowledge of the design of symbols for printed thematic maps as a guide for the creation of tactile symbols, given that it is often inappropriate to translate print map symbols into a tactile map format (James, 1982; Klatzky & Lederman, 1987). But, as we discuss later, several principles of cartographic design may be shared between the thematic design of tactile and visual symbols, such as max-contrast symbolization (Cromley, 2005; Dougenik & Sheehan, 1975; Gilmartin & Shelton, 1989), half-toning (Slocum, 1999), and nonlinear assumption (Kimerling, 1985). In the study presented here, we borrowed and applied these guidelines for making traditional print thematic maps to the design and subsequent evaluation of tactile thematic maps. A primary goal of the research was to identify effective symbols for tactile thematic maps. An effective symbology is based on discriminability and the extent to which the symbols foster spatial understanding. The two research questions that drove the experimental design and data analysis were these: 1. Can the tactile map user discriminate among the different fill patterns that are used to represent distinct classes of maps? 2. Can these symbols be used to create a classed quantitative choropleth tactile map that facilitates the recognition and overall understanding of spatial patterns, such as the population distribution of a state? Symbolization and use of tactile maps A critical area of research in tactile mapping involves the legibility and meaningfulness of tactile symbologies (Lambert & Lederman, 1989). The reading of tactile maps consists of a series of processes, beginning with the discrimination and identification of symbols (Perkins, 2002). Early studies of legibility included those on the effect of noise in detecting point symbols (Berla & Murr, 1975); minimum sizes for areal and point tactile symbols (Nolan & Morris, 1971); and the identification of one symbol among a series of symbols of the same class, either points, lines, or area (Barth, 1982). Barth, along with others (Gill & James, 1973; Lambert & Lederman, 1989), used a matching task or a paired comparison task in which a single symbol was identified among a set. These studies are relevant because they mimicked behavior that would be performed with a map legend. …

Maps designed for and used by sighted audiences benefit from map symbol standardization and convention but, with very limited exception (most notably two European projects), neither standardization nor convention guides the design and use of symbols for tactile maps. In this project, we developed and field tested symbolization for and use of tactile street maps. The development process included consultation with the literature as well as with field experts (orientation and mobility teachers, Braillists, and teachers working with students who are blind or have low vision). Following development, we undertook a three-year field testing and validation phase, in which we conducted pilot testing and formal testing with travelers who are blind or have low vision. Research results reveal not only a discriminable and useful tactile symbol set but also environmental feature use by travelers who are blind or have low vision.

Most of us know people who “cannot read a map” and others who seem to navigate intuitively. Such discrepancy in ability is puzzling, given that most people navigate to and between locations many times every day. In many cases the locations are those that are destinations we visit regularly (school, work, home, store), but people are also frequently faced with the task of navigating to a new location, whether it is a store not previously visited or a vacation destination. Why do such differences exist and can we identify some of the human traits or abilities that lead to such differences? This article presents results from empirical research designed to investigate these differences. Three research questions were asked: (1) Can a reliable and valid navigational map reading test instrument be designed? (2) To what extent does the instrument predict navigational map reading? and (3) What is the relative influence of individual map-related abilities on overall navigational map reading? A Navigational...

The development of a definition and classification scheme for cartographic animation is now warranted, since focus on the visualization method increased during the 1990s. This article offers a comprehensive definition of animation, distinguishing between animation, slide shows, multimedia, and hypermedia. In addition, a classification system identifies and offers specific characteristics for four different methods or types of cartographic animation: time, areal, thematic, and process.

Based on the idea that maps are products that are designed for human use, this chapter advocates for redefining the map user and map use audience. Specifically, we argue for the inclusion or at least the discussion of principles of Universal Design and Design for All in the map design and production process. The chapter identifies three key constructs within cartographic communication models: the map, the map user, and knowledge transformation. A brief discussion of the development and principles of both Universal Design (in the United States) and Design for All (in the European Union) is provided. The underlying principles of those movements are then applied to the key constructs of the generalized cartographic communication models. This chapter does not offer explicit design guidelines for achieving inclusiveness in cartography. Rather, it acknowledges that including, exploring, and achieving inclusive design will be challenging. But, as a communication discipline with over 2000 years of history, cartography is well poised to embrace this challenge.

As a group learning experience in a graduate cartography course, a focus group study was performed of a recently-redesigned map of the Michigan State University campus. The learning process involved two parts. Part one was a 75-minute focus group discussion during regular class time with the instructor as the moderator, one student as the assistant and notetaker, and the other members of the class as the subjects. After instructions were given, everyone studied the map for a brief period and then discussed a set of issues focused on the design of the map. Discussion was orderly but lively and packed with relevant comments. Part two occurred at the next class session. Students discussed the experience, the results, the assigned readings on the method, and relevance of the method to other projects. A written report was then prepared for the producers of the map. Reactions to the learning experience were highly positive, and several participants have since used qualitative methods in other research. An actual study proved an effective means of learning the fundamentals of focus group research.

This paper presents results from an empirical research study designed to investigate the affect of data format on user exploration patterns of spatial data visualized through GIS tables and maps. An experiment was designed in which geographic data were organized into point, line, and area tables and maps. These data were explored through a customized GIS interface and user exploration patterns were recorded. The results provide support for the application of the dominant framework theories (that explain mental map formation from direct exposure to a real-world geographic environment) to learning spatial data visualized in GIS.

The human consequences of drought are normally addressed in terms of “water scarcity” originating from human water use. In these terms, a common prediction to the next few decades is that population growth, not climate change, will be the dominant factor determining numbers living under such scarcity. Here we address the relative importance of increasing human caused extreme drought and increasing population for numbers of humans likely to be directly exposed in the future to such drought. Using the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) in conjunction with an ensemble of 16 CMIP5 climate models we find that, by 2081-2100 under the high emissions scenario RCP 8.5, average worldwide monthly population exposed to extreme drought (SPEI < -2) will increase by 386.8 million to 472.3 million (+426.6% from the current 89.7 million). Anthropogenic climate change is responsible for approximately 230.0 million (59.5%) of that increase with population growth responsible for only 35.5 million (9.2%); the climate change-population growth interaction explains the remaining 121.1 million (31.4%). At the national level, 129 countries will experience increase in drought exposure mainly due to climate change alone; 23 countries primarily due to population growth; and 38 countries primarily due to the interaction between climate change and population growth. Given inherently large uncertainties, projections of future climate impacts should be accepted with caution especially those directed to the regional level, to future population trends, and, of course, where technological, social and security changes are possible.