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Five off the shelf commercially available flea traps were tested for their efficacy against the cat/dog flea Ctenocephalides felis. Two traps were significantly better at catching fleas than the remaining three which performed very poorly. It is presumed that the unique combination of attractive features of the best performing Flea Catcher trap are what makes it so effective, including three large, intermittently illuminated light panels simulating host movement and additional synchronized lights in green wavelength pointed downwards to the flea catching base. Additionally, the Flea catcher has the largest surface area. Only two traps, the Flea Catcher and myFleaTrap were non-attractive to non-target insects, while the other traps caught large amounts of other insects quickly blocking the glue panels.

The performance of the three-part mosquito lure ATRAKTA (1-octen-3-ol, ammonium bicarbonate, and lactic acid) was evaluated in two DynaTrap commercial mosquito traps (models DT160 and DT700) as well as in one model of CDC trap (model 512). Lures were evaluated fresh from the factory, after being aged in functioning traps under field conditions, and after prolonged storage in the packaging (aged for 30 days aged in functioning traps before being tested in the DynaTrap models; and two years stored in the packaging before being tested in CDC traps). The primary study questions were whether the addition of lures would increase efficacy of various trap types and whether lures would retain effectiveness after a lengthy stay on the shelf or in traps. To do this, traps with no lures, new lures and old lures were used to trap three mosquito species (Aedes albopictus, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Anopheles gambiae) in the field in West Africa Mali, the first two species are also common North American nuisance mosquitoes. The addition of ATRAKTA lures aged 30 days to both DynaTrap® models, and ATRAKTA lures aged two years in the packaging to the CDC trap significantly increased catches of female Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. Aged lures did not significantly lose their attraction in comparison to lures fresh from the factory. The addition of lures to traps resulted in slight increases in catches of An. gambiae, but these were not statistically significant. No effect of any lures on males was observed.

Background Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits (ATSBs) successfully reduced Anopheles mosquito vector populations and malaria parasite transmission in Mali, but application methods need to be improved for wide-scale use, and effects on non-target organisms (NTOs) must be assessed. The goals of this study were to determine on a village level the effect of different outdoor configurations of ATSB bait stations to 1) achieve > 25% Anopheles mosquito vector daily feeding rate for both males and females and 2) minimize the effect on non-target organisms. Methods Dye was added to Attractive Sugar Bait Stations (ASB – without toxin) to mark mosquitoes feeding on the sugar baits, and CDC UV light traps were used to monitor mosquitoes for the presence of the dye. Yellow plates, pitfall traps, Malaise traps, UV light traps, UV tray traps, and sweep nets were used to trap and sample non-target organisms (NTOs) for dye, indicating feeding on the ASB. ASB stations were hung on outer walls of village homes to determine the impact of different densities of ASBs (1,2, or 3 per home) as well as the impact of ASB height (1 m or 1.8 m above the ground on sugar feeding by anophelines. These experiments were carried out separately, on consecutive nights for mosquito and NTO monitoring. Eight villages in the Koulikoro province were chosen as the experimental locations. Results The use of one ASB station per house marked 23.11% of female and 7.11% of male An. gambiae s.l. While two and three ASB stations per house gave feeding rates above the 25% goal, there was no statistical difference in the percentage of marked mosquitoes (p=0.3141 females; p=0.9336 males). There was no difference in sugar feeding on ASB stations when hung at 1.0 and 1.8 m and (p=0.5170 females; p=0.9934 males); however, ASBs at 1.8 m had less accidental damage from village residents and animals, and subsequent invasion of non-targets through rips or holes produced. ASB stations at 1.8 m above ground were fed on by three of seven monitored insect orders. Feeding rates were less than 0.015% of total trap catches and as low as 0.0001%. The monitored orders were: Hymenoptera [ants (Formicidae), bees (Apidae), and wasps (Vespidae)], Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera, Bombyces, Geometroidea, Noctuoidea, Sphingidae, Pyraloidea), Coleoptera (Carabidae, Tenebrionidae, Scarabaeidae, Cerambycidae, and Chrysomelidae), Diptera (Brachycera, Chironomidae), Hemiptera (Cicadomorpha and Heteroptera), Neuroptera (Myrmeleontiformia) and Orthoptera (Caelifera and Ensifera). Using one or two stations limited evidence of NTO feeding to ants (Hymenoptera), Brachycera, Heteroptera, Noctuiodea, Rhopalocera, wasps (Vespidae) and wild bees (Apidae) (both Hymenoptera) and had a significantly reduced percentage of stained individuals compared to three stations which had the highest feeding rates amongst NTOs. The percentages of stained individuals were as follows: 6.84 ± 2.03% Brachycera were stained followed by wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) 5.32 ± 2.27%, and Rhopalocera 2.22 ± 1.79%. Hanging the optimal number of stations per house for catching mosquitoes (two) 1.8 m above ground, limited the groups of non-targets to Brachycera, Chironomidae, Noctuoidea, Rhopalocera, parasitic wasps and wasps (both Hymenoptera: Vespidae). The three most commonly stained non-target insect groups at this height were wasps (Vespidae) (1.65 ± 0.75%), Chironomidae (0.99 ± 0.37), and Brachycera (1.55 ± 0.69%). Feeding at this height only occurred when stations were damaged.Conclusions The goal of marking one quarter of the total Anopheles mosquito vector population per day was obtained using 2 bait stations at 1.8 m height above the ground on the outer walls of houses. This configuration of ATSB stations also had minimal effects on non-target insects: only 0.0001% to 0.013% of specimens (in three orders) were marked. Stations hung 1.8 m above the ground had less accidental damage from passing people and livestock. The minimal marking of non-target insects may be attributed to visual orientation of non-mosquito insects while mosquitoes, are mostly guided by olfactory cues. Furthermore, the bait stations have a membrane cover, which if intact, is impenetrable to most sugar feeding non-target insects but is pierced by the stylets of the mosquito proboscis. Thus, most non-target insects are not exposed to the toxin even if they approach the bait stations.

Background Attractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) are a promising new tool for malaria control as they can target outdoor-feeding mosquito populations, in contrast to current vector control tools which predominantly target indoor-feeding mosquitoes. Methods It was sought to estimate the potential impact of these new tools on Plasmodium falciparum malaria prevalence in African settings by combining data from a recent entomological field trial of ATSBs undertaken in Mali with mathematical models of malaria transmission. The key parameter determining impact on the mosquito population is the excess mortality due to ATSBs, which is estimated from the observed reduction in mosquito catch numbers. A mathematical model capturing the life cycle of P. falciparum malaria in mosquitoes and humans and incorporating the excess mortality was used to estimate the potential epidemiological effect of ATSBs. Results The entomological study showed a significant reduction of ~ 57% (95% CI 33–72%) in mosquito catch numbers, and a larger reduction of ~ 89% (95% CI 75–100%) in the entomological inoculation rate due to the fact that, in the presence of ATSBs, most mosquitoes do not live long enough to transmit malaria. The excess mortality due to ATSBs was estimated to be lower (mean 0.09 per mosquito per day, seasonal range 0.07–0.11 per day) than the bait feeding rate obtained from one-day staining tests (mean 0.34 per mosquito per day, seasonal range 0.28–0.38 per day). Conclusions From epidemiological modelling, it was predicted that ATSBs could result in large reductions (> 30% annually) in prevalence and clinical incidence of malaria, even in regions with an existing high malaria burden. These results suggest that this new tool could provide a promising addition to existing vector control tools and result in significant reductions in malaria burden across a range of malaria-endemic settings.

Background The aim of this field trial was to evaluate the efficacy of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) in Mali, where sustained malaria transmission occurs despite the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). ATSB bait stations were deployed in seven of 14 similar study villages, where LLINs were already in widespread use. The combined use of ATSB and LLINs was tested to see if it would substantially reduce parasite transmission by Anopheles gambiae sensu lato beyond use of LLINs alone. Methods A 2-day field experiment was conducted to determine the number of mosquitoes feeding on natural sugar versus those feeding on bait stations containing attractive sugar bait without toxin (ASB)—but with food dye. This was done each month in seven random villages from April to December 2016. In the following year, in seven treatment villages from May to December 2017, two ATSB bait stations containing the insecticide dinotefuran were placed on the outer walls of each building. Vector population density was evaluated monthly by CDC UV light traps, malaise traps, pyrethrum spray (PSCs) and human landing catches (HLCs). Female samples of the catch were tested for age by examination of the ovarioles in dissected ovaries and identification of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection by ELISA. Entomological inoculation rates (EIR) were calculated, and reductions between treated and untreated villages were determined. Results In the 2-day experiment with ASB each month, there was a lower number of male and female mosquitoes feeding on the natural sugar sources than on the ASB. ATSB deployment reduced CDC-UV trap female catches in September, when catches were highest, were by 57.4% compared to catches in control sites. Similarly, malaise trap catches showed a 44.3% reduction of females in August and PSC catches of females were reduced by 48.7% in September. Reductions of females in HLCs were lower by 19.8% indoors and 26.3% outdoors in September. The high reduction seen in the rainy season was similar for males and reductions in population density for both males and females were > 70% during the dry season. Reductions of females with ≥ 3 gonotrophic cycles were recorded every month amounting to 97.1% in October and 100.0% in December. Reductions in monthly EIRs ranged from 77.76 to 100.00% indoors and 84.95% to 100.00% outdoors. The number of sporozoite infected females from traps was reduced by 97.83% at treated villages compared to controls. Conclusions Attractive toxic sugar baits used against Anopheles mosquitoes in Mali drastically reduced the density of mosquitoes, the number of older females, the number of sporozoite infected females and the EIR demonstrating how ATSB significantly reduces malaria parasite transmission.

BackgroundCurrent tools and strategies are not sufficient to reliably address threats and outbreaks of arboviruses including Zika, dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever. Hence there is a growing public health challenge to identify the best new control tools to use against the vectorAedes aegypti. In this study, we investigatedAe. aegyptisugar feeding strategies in Bamako, Mali, to determine if this species can be controlled effectively using attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB).Methodology/Principal findingsWe determined the relative attraction ofAe. aegyptimales and females to a variety of sugar sources including flowers, fruits, seedpods, and honeydew in the laboratory and using plant-baited traps in the field. Next, we observed the rhythm of blood feeding versus sugar feeding activity ofAe. aegyptiin vegetation and in open areas. Finally, we studied the effectiveness of spraying vegetation with ATSB onAe. aegyptiin sugar rich (lush vegetation) and in sugar poor (sparse vegetation) urban environments.Male and female laboratory sugar feeding rates within 24 h, on 8 of 16 plants offered were over 80%. The survival rates of mosquitoes on several plant sources were nearly as long as that of controls maintained on sucrose solution. In the field, females were highly attracted to 11 of 20 sugar sources, and 8 of these were attractive to males. Peak periods of host attraction for blood-feeding and sugar feeding in open areas were nearly identical and occurred shortly after sunrise and around sunset. In shaded areas, the first sugar-seeking peak occurred between 11:30 and 12:30 while the second was from 16:30 to 17:30. In a 50-day field trial, ATSB significantly reduced mean numbers of landing / biting femaleAe. aegyptiin the two types of vegetation. At sugar poor sites, the mean pre-treatment catch of 20.51 females on day 14 was reduced 70-fold to 0.29 on day 50. At sugar rich sites, the mean pre-treatment catch of 32.46 females on day 14 was reduced 10-fold to a mean of 3.20 females on day 50.Conclusions/SignificanceThis is the first study to show how the vectorAe. aegyptidepends on environmental resources of sugar for feeding and survival. The demonstration thatAe. aegyptipopulations rapidly collapsed after ATSB treatment, in both sugar rich and sugar poor environments, is strong evidence thatAe. aegyptiis sugar-feeding frequently. Indeed, this study clearly demonstrates thatAe. aegyptimosquitoes depend on natural sugar resources, and a promising new method for vector control, ATSB, can be highly effective in the fight against Aedes-transmitted diseases.Author summaryAedes aegyptiare notoriously difficult to control since their ubiquitous man-made and natural breeding sites, in various geographical regions, include almost any receptacle that can hold water. These diurnal mosquitoes are anthropophilic, a preference that promotes their role as vectors of many arboviruses including Zika, dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever. With the exception of yellow fever, there are no vaccines against any of these arboviruses so that use of personal protective measures and mosquito vector control are the only means of prevention. Disease burdens in most endemic areas are not sufficiently reduced by various integrated vector management (IVM) strategies, hence there is a need for new control tools to complement the common strategies. Control by Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits (ATSB) appears to be an ideal candidate for this purpose.The results of this study support this proposition. They demonstrate thatAe. aegyptiin their urban environments in Mali are attracted to and frequently feed on staple diet that includes a variety of flowers, fruits and seed pods. Therefore,Ae. aegyptiis a suitable candidate for control with ATSB. Moreover, the experiments with ATSB, in sparse vegetation or with competitor plant attractants in rich vegetation, demonstrated that ATSB treatment can cause a drastic reduction ofAe. aegyptipopulations.

We tested the efficacy of attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) with garlic oil microencapsulated in beta-cyclodextrin as active ingredient against Aedes albopictus in suburban Haifa, Israel. Two three-acre gardens with high numbers of Ae. albopictus were selected for perimeter spray treatment with ATSB and ASB (bait containing no active ingredient). Baits were colored with food dye to verify feeding of the mosquitoes. The mosquito population was monitored by human landing catches and sweep net catches in the surrounding vegetation. Experiments lasted for 44 days. Treatment occurred on day 13. The mosquito population collapsed about 4 days after treatment and continued to drop steadily for 27 days until the end of the study. At the experimental site the average pre-treatment landing rate was 17.2 per 5 mins. Two days post-treatment, the landing rate dropped to 11.4, and continued to drop to an average of 2.6 during the following 26 days. During the same period, the control population was stable. Few sugar fed females (8–10%) approached a human bait and anthrone tests showed relatively small amounts of sugar within their crop/gut. Around 60–70 % of males caught near our human bait were sugar positive which may indicate that the males were feeding on sugar for mating related behavior. From the vegetation treated with the toxic bait, we recovered significantly fewer (about 10–14%) males and females stained by ATSB than at the ASB-treated control. This may indicate that the toxic baits alter the resting behavior of the poisoned mosquitoes within the vegetation. Almost no Ae. albopictus females (5.2 ± 1.4) approached human bait after treatment with ATSB. It therefore appears that microencapsulated garlic oil is an effective pesticide against Ae. albopictus when used in an ATSB system.

Background A neglected aspect of alien invasive plant species is their influence on mosquito vector ecology and malaria transmission. Invasive plants that are highly attractive to Anopheles mosquitoes provide them with sugar that is critical to their survival. The effect on Anopheles mosquito populations was examined through a habitat manipulation experiment that removed the flowering branches of highly attractive Prosopis juliflora from selected villages in Mali, West Africa. Methods Nine villages in the Bandiagara district of Mali were selected, six with flowering Prosopis juliflora, and three without. CDC-UV light traps were used to monitor their Anopheles spp. vector populations, and recorded their species composition, population size, age structure, and sugar feeding status. After 8 days, all of the flowering branches were removed from three villages and trap catches were analysed again. Results Villages where flowering branches of the invasive shrub Prosopis juliflora were removed experienced a threefold drop in the older more dangerous Anopheles females. Population density dropped by 69.4% and the species composition shifted from being a mix of three species of the Anopheles gambiae complex to one dominated by Anopheles coluzzii. The proportion of sugar fed females dropped from 73 to 15% and males from 77 to 10%. Conclusions This study demonstrates how an invasive plant shrub promotes the malaria parasite transmission capacity of African malaria vector mosquitoes. Proper management of invasive plants could potentially reduce mosquito populations and malaria transmission.

BackgroundCurrent tools and strategies are not sufficient to reliably address threats and outbreaks of arboviruses including Zika, dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever. Hence there is a growing public health challenge to identify the best new control tools to use against the vector Aedes aegypti. In this study, we investigated Ae. aegypti sugar feeding strategies in Bamako, Mali, to determine if this species can be controlled effectively using attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB).MethodologyWe determined the relative attraction of Ae. aegypti males and females to a variety of sugar sources including flowers, fruits, seedpods, and honeydew in the laboratory and using plant-baited traps in the field. Next, we observed the rhythm of blood feeding versus sugar feeding activity of Ae. aegypti in vegetation and in open areas. Finally, we studied the effectiveness of spraying vegetation with ATSB on Ae. aegypti in sugar rich (lush vegetation) and in sugar poor (sparse vegetation) urban environments.Principal findingsMale and female laboratory sugar feeding rates within 24 h, on 8 of 16 plants offered were over 80%. The survival rates of mosquitoes on several plant sources were nearly as long as that of controls maintained on sucrose solution. In the field, females were highly attracted to 11 of 20 sugar sources, and 8 of these were attractive to males. Peak periods of host attraction for blood-feeding and sugar feeding in open areas were nearly identical and occurred shortly after sunrise and around sunset. In shaded areas, the first sugar-seeking peak occurred between 11:30 and 12:30 while the second was from 16:30 to 17:30. In a 50-day field trial, ATSB significantly reduced mean numbers of landing / biting female Ae. aegypti in the two types of vegetation. At sugar poor sites, the mean pre-treatment catch of 20.51 females on day 14 was reduced 70-fold to 0.29 on day 50. At sugar rich sites, the mean pre-treatment catch of 32.46 females on day 14 was reduced 10-fold to a mean of 3.20 females on day 50.ConclusionsThis is the first study to show how the vector Ae. aegypti depends on environmental resources of sugar for feeding and survival. The demonstration that Ae. aegypti populations rapidly collapsed after ATSB treatment, in both sugar rich and sugar poor environments, is strong evidence that Ae. aegypti is sugar-feeding frequently. Indeed, this study clearly demonstrates that Ae. aegypti mosquitoes depend on natural sugar resources, and a promising new method for vector control, ATSB, can be highly effective in the fight against Aedes-transmitted diseases.

Human landing catch studies were conducted in a semi-field setting to determine the efficacy of seven commercial products used for personal protection against mosquitoes. Experiments were conducted in two empty, insecticide free, mesh-enclosed greenhouses, in Israel, with either 1500 Aedes albopictus or 1500 Culex pipiens released on consecutive study nights. The products tested in this study were the OFF!(®) Clip-On™ Mosquito Repellent (Metofluthrin 31.2%) and the Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) Sidekick Mosquito Repeller (Cinnamon oil 10.5%; Eugenol 13%; Geranium oil 21%; Peppermint 5.3%; Lemongrass oil 2.6%), which are personal diffusers; Super Band™ Wristband (22% Citronella oil) and the PIC(®) Citronella Plus Wristband (Geraniol 15%; Lemongrass oil 5%, Citronella oil 1%); the Sonic Insect Repeller Keychain; the Mosquito Guard Patch (Oil of Lemon Eucalyptus 80mg), an adhesive-backed sticker for use on textiles; and the Mosquito Patch (vitamin B1 300mg), a transdermal patch. It was determined that the sticker, transdermal patch, wristbands and sonic device did not provide significant protection to volunteers compared with the mosquito attack rate on control volunteers who were not wearing a repellent device. The personal diffusers: - OFF!(®) Clip-On™ and Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) Sidekick - provided superior protection compared with all other devices in this study. These diffusers reduced biting on the arms of volunteers by 96.28% and 95.26% respectively, for Ae. albopictus, and by 94.94% and 92.15% respectively, for Cx. pipiens. In a second trial conducted to compare these devices directly, biting was reduced by the OFF!(®) Clip-On™ and the Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) by 87.55% and 92.83%, respectively, for Ae. albopictus, and by 97.22% and 94.14%, respectively, for Cx. pipiens. There was no significant difference between the performances of the two diffusers for each species.

To overcome the limitations of currently used window entry/exit traps, we developed an efficient new glue net entry/exit trap (GNT) that is economical, easily transported and assembled, and can be utilized for a variety of studies which aim to investigate the dynamics of mosquito movements between indoor and outdoor habitats. Cage experiments were conducted to determine what percentage of mosquitoes trying to pass through the netting are actually being caught. The GNT caught 97% of female and 98% of male Anopheles gambiae s.s., as well as 97.5% of female and 98% of male Culex pipiens attempting to cross into a bait chamber adjoining the release cage. During a six day field study, the bedroom windows of 12 homes in Mali were fitted with entry/exit GNTs. Traps without glue were fitted over the inside and outside bedroom windows of an additional 12 homes as a control. A total of 446 An. gambiae s.l. were caught attempting to exit dwellings while 773 An. gambiae s.l. were caught attempting to enter. The number of males and females attempting to exit dwellings were roughly similar (215 and 231 respectively) while there was a slight difference in the number of males and females trying to enter (382 and 430 respectively). Pyrethrum spray catches (PSC's) conducted inside the dwellings on the last day of the experiment yielded only six females and a single male.

The distribution of Aedes albopictus in Africa has thus far been known to be restricted to coastal Sub-Saharan countries. This report describes the first record of the tiger mosquito in habitats located in Mali, at a significant distance from the coastal areas of the continent. Aedes. albopictus was observed over several years in increasing frequency in Mopti in Central Mali and later in the capital city Bamako, both adjacent to the Niger River. These findings suggest further dissemination of Ae. albopictus could be facilitated by river transport of goods and commodities which harbor larvae and eggs of this species. If correct, the distribution of Ae. albopictus is expected to extend to areas located upstream of the Niger River and its tributaries.

We conducted a study to determine the degree of personal protection provided by the Terminix(®) ALLCLEAR(®) Mosquito Mister - Lantern Edition. This outdoor unit was operated to disperse an aerosolized aqueous 0.3% geraniol emulsion in timed-release intervals of 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 min. Human volunteers participated in landing catch experiments to test the effect of geraniol sprayed at pre-set time intervals, at two distances: (1) 18 ft (5.49 m), the maximum effective distance claimed by the manufacturer, and (2) 9 ft (2.74 m), half the effective distance from the unit. When aerosolized geraniol was dispensed, reductions in biting pressure (landing, probing and biting mosquitoes) of Culex pipiens and Aedes albopictus, at all times and distances, were evident compared to dispensation of the water spray control. The degree of protection correlated well with the distance from the subject and the time interval of releases. The 5 min time interval mode reduced overall biting pressure by more than 90% at 9 ft (2.74 m) and 18 ft (5.49 m). Reduction of biting pressure in the 7.5 min mode was still well over 80% and even in the 10 min mode, overall protection was slightly above 80% at a distance of 9 ft. The lowest but still reasonable protection level was observed in the 10 min mode, at the periphery of the area the unit claims to protect (300 ft(2)), with a biting pressure reduction of approximately two-thirds.

A survey was conducted to evaluate the number of tree-hole breeding mosquito species and their distribution in the six principal woodland types in Israel. Out of approximately 3,000 mature trees examined, only 38 contained holes that retained water for extended periods of time, and breeding mosquitoes were observed in 27 of them. Two specialized tree-hole breeders, Aedes pulchritarsis Rondani and Aedes geniculatus Oliver, were found breeding at several sites in northern Israel, always at locations 500 m above sea level (a.s.l) and with high annual precipitation. Aedes albopictus Skuse which, in Israel, is known as an opportunistic container breeder, was found in this study to have adapted remarkably well to breeding in tree holes and was found in most forest types investigated and in most tree species which had adequate tree holes. Two other species, Culiseta annulata Schrank and Culex pipiens Linnaeus instars, were found in one of the tree holes, but did not survive to reach maturity.

Comparisons were conducted of flea catches of four commercially available flea traps in the laboratory and under field conditions, in both rural and urban locations. The results clearly showed the My Flea Trap™, which utilizes an intermittent light to attract fleas, to be far superior in trapping ability to the three continuous light traps; it caught up to 23 times as many fleas as the other traps. Altering the lighting mechanism to provide continuous rather than intermittent light significantly decreased the number of fleas captured. In addition, the use of a green filter significantly increased trapping efficiency, whereas the addition of a heat source had no apparent effect.

Sand flies have been reported feeding on various plant organs including stems, leaves, and flowers but the attraction of sand flies to sugar-rich fruits has received little attention. In this study, we tested 24 commercially available fruits for their attractiveness to sand flies, and found that the top three attractive fruits were nectarine (Prunus persica var. nectarina), cactus fruit, (Opuntia ficus-indica), and guava (Psidium guajava). These fruits were fed upon equally by both males and females. There were slight differences in the order of preference to the less-attractive fruits by males and females, but these were not statistically significant. The knowledge of fruit preference may help to improve existing methods that use plant phytochemicals to attract and kill biting flies.

This study evaluated the use of an insecticide-treated fruit juice bait against adult Culex pipiens s.l. L. from sewage ponds in Israel. The attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) solution (fruit juice, sugar, food dye, oral insecticide spinosad, and BaitStab, a mixture of slow-release substances and preservatives) was sprayed onto 10-15% of the surrounding vegetation of these ponds. The same bait solution, without insecticide, was sprayed onto vegetation at a similar site as a control. Mosquito abundance was monitored in treatment and control sites with six CDC light traps. Mosquitoes in the experimental sites decreased from approximately 125 to approximately eight per trap. Mosquito abundance in the control sites was fairly stable and averaged approximately 60 per trap during the study. Before starting the study parity of mosquitoes from the experimental and control sites averaged approximately 20% multiparous females. After bait/insecticide application, only approximately 3% of the females were multiparous in the treatment area.

The first goal of this study was to compare the degree of personal protection against biting insects provided by geraniol, linalool, and citronella candle (5%) vapors outdoors, where such products are commonly used. At a distance of 1.0 m, citronella candles reduced the number of female mosquitoes caught in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traps by 35.4% and sand flies by 15.4%, linalool candles reduced female mosquitoes by 64.9% and sand flies by 48.5%, while geraniol candles reduced female mosquitoes by 81.5% and sand flies by 69.8%. By increasing the distance to 2 m and 3 m, the repellency dropped significantly. The second goal was to compare the degree of personal protection provided by the best performing candle, geraniol, under conditions of high and low biting pressure. The introduction of geraniol candles to protect volunteers in a high biting pressure environment reduced the mosquito pressure by an average of 56% and the sand fly pressure by 62% over a distance of 1.0 m. In the low biting pressure environment, geraniol reduced the mosquito pressure by an average of 62%. No sand flies were present at this site.

The repellent effect of 3 essential-oil-based candles was evaluated in a high biting pressure environment in Israel. In human landing assays, the repellency rate of 5% citronella candles against mosquitoes was 29.0%, of 5% linalool candles was 71.1%, and of 5% geraniol candles was 85.4%. The candles with geraniol were about twice as effective as those with linalool and were about 5 times as effective as citronella candles in protecting a person from being bitten indoors by mosquitoes. The repellency rate of 5% citronella candles towards sand flies was 24.7%, of 5% linalool candles was 55.2%, and of 5% geraniol candles was 79.7%. A geraniol candle was almost 5 times as effective as a citronella candle and about twice as effective as a linalool candle in protecting a person from being bitten indoors by sand flies.

The feeding behaviour of insects is a difficult ecological interaction to study. To date, entomologists have used biochemical and molecular techniques to identify the meals of predatory insects. We present here a molecular approach to identifying the DNA of plant species in the insect gut using the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase gene large subunit (rbcL). A reference collection of 23 plant species from the southern Jordan Valley, Israel, was genetically characterized and employed. Insects belonging to eight different families were collected in the field along with the plants upon which they were found. After collection and prior to analysis, these insects were isolated on the plants they were found upon in the laboratory. This was to ensure that the insects had only one plant meal in their gut, as multiple plant meals would require additional techniques like cloning. A blind study was performed, genetically confirming plant DNA to species level from the processed gut contents of the insects. All reference plant species could be differentiated using a 157 bp long fragment of the rbcL gene. Plant DNA was identifiable, and the meal of the respective insect was accurately determined in each case. Analyses using experimentally fed crickets, Gryllodes hebraeus, determined that plant DNA was still detectable by PCR up to 12 h post-ingestion. This research proposes the application of molecular techniques for the identification of herbivorous insect feeding behaviour to increase understanding of plant–insect interactions.

Herein, the species group related to Catocala lesbian Christoph, 1887 is revised. The following new species are described: Catocala olgaorlovae Kravchenko et al. sp. n. from Israel and Egypt, Catocala editarevayae Muller et al. sp. n. from Jordan, and Catocala puerperoides Zahiri et al. sp. n. from Iran. Furthermore, a new subspecies of Catocala lesbian from Pakistan (Waziristan) is characterised: Catocala lesbian ssp. fittkaui Saldaitis et al. ssp. n. The distribution and habitats of all species are described and figured. Also, the larva of Catocala lesbian is described and figured for the first time. The ecology, phenology, threats (IUCN criteria) and possible conservation measures of Catocala olgaorlovae sp. n. are outlined. The lectotype of Catocala lesbian is designated by A. Matov.

We tested the performance of ten commercial mosquito traps with varying attractive features, against three CDC traps (an unlit model 512, an incandescently lit model 512, and a UV lit model 1212) as well as simple sticky paper, for their ability to attract and capture Phlebotomus papatasi in Israel. The commercial traps tested were the Sentinel 360, the Combo Trap, the Mega Catch Premier, the Bug Eater, the EcoTrap, the Galaxie Power-Vac, the Biter Fighter, the Black Hole, the Mosquito Trap, the Mosquito Catcher, the Sonic Web, the Solar Pest Killer, and a Bug Zapper. The four best performing traps with the highest nightly catches were the Sentinel 360 (85.96 ±19.34), the Combo Trap (70.00±7.78), the Mega Catch Premier (51.93±1.82) and the UV lit CDC 1212 trap (47.64±3.43). Five traps--the Mosquito Trap, the Mosquito Catcher, the Sonic Web, the Solar Pest Killer, and the Bug Zapper--performed exceptionally poorly, catching an average of less than two sand flies per day. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive attempt to evaluate commercial traps for their effectiveness in catching sand flies, and we show here that some traps that have been effective in catching mosquitoes are also effective in catching sand flies.

We determined the degree of personal protection provided by citronella, linalool, and geraniol in the form of commercially available candles or diffusers, both indoors and outdoors. Under the uniform conditions of the experiments, all substances repelled significantly more mosquitoes than the unprotected control. Furthermore, the repellents tested were more active when in the form of a continuous release diffuser than in candle form. All candles were 88 g containing 5% of the active ingredient and all diffusers contained 20 g of 100% active ingredient. Indoors, the repellency rate of citronella candles was only 14% while the repellency rate of citronella diffusers was 68%. The repellency of geraniol candles was 50% while the diffusers provided a repellency rate of 97%. No linalool candles were available for study but linalool diffusers repelled mosquitoes by 93%. Outdoors, citronella diffusers placed 6 m from mosquito traps repelled female mosquitoes by 22%, linalool repelled females by 58%, and geraniol repelled females by 75%. Trap catches were significantly reduced again when diffusers were placed 3 m from the traps. We concluded that geraniol had significantly more repellent activity than citronella or linalool in both indoor and outdoor settings.

Attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSBs) were used to control mosquitoes in the storm drains of a residential area on the outskirts of St Augustine, Florida. The drainage system was newly constructed and no mosquitoes were breeding inside it. The area covered by the storm drains was divided in half; 10 drains served as control drains and 16 drains served as experimental drains. The baits, which consisted of a mixture of brown sugar, fruit juice, green dye marker and boric acid, were presented at the entrances of the treated drains and exit traps were positioned over the drain openings and the connecting tubes leading to retention ponds. Similar baits with orange dye and without toxin were presented at the entrances of control drains. A total of 220 pupae of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) were released in each control and toxin-treated drain, and the numbers of recovered mosquitoes were examined to determine the effectiveness of ATSBs in the storm drain system. An average of 178.2 mosquitoes exited each drain in the control area; 87.0% of these had fed on the baits and were stained orange, whereas 13.0% were unstained. In the toxin-treated drains, 83.7% of hatched females and 86.6% of hatched males were controlled by the baits.

Sugar and cellulose assays can determine if an insect has fed on sugar and plant tissue but they cannot identify the species of source plant. In this study, we used DNA analysis together with traditional cellulose and sugar assays to examine the plant feeding habits of wild Phlebotomus papatasi during the dry season in the Lower Jordan Valley, Israel. About 37% of the sand flies were positive for sugar, 45% were positive for cellulose in the gut, and 41% contained amplifiable plant DNA. All of the plant DNA fragments sequenced from both males and females were identified as Suaeda asphaltica.

There are three commonly used assays to identify plant material in insect guts: the cold anthrone test for fructose, the cellulose staining test for visualizing plant tissue and gas chromatography for seeking unique sugar content profiles. Though sugar and cellulose tests can distinguish between the general sources of sugar meal (nectar versus tissue), they cannot identify the species of plant sources. Even gas chromatography profiles can be problematic; there are reported instances of intra-specific variation as well as inter-specific and intergeneric variation that can mar results. Here, we explore the potential for DNA analysis to help resolve this issue. First, Anopheles sergentii were exposed to branches of two species of highly attractive flowering bushes in the laboratory and the great majority ( approximately 90-98%) were positive for sugar from nectar while very few were positive for cellulose ( approximately 0.5-8%) and DNA (6-19%). Moreover, laboratory An. sergentii showed opposing preferences, tending to obtain sugar from nectar of one plant (Tamarix nilotica) but to feed more on tissue from the other (Ochradenus baccatus). An. sergentii are exposed to a wide variety of plants in their natural desert habitats and in the absence of flowers in the dry season, they resort to feeding specifically on tissues of a few plants. According to DNA analysis the favorite plants were Suaeda asphaltica, Malva nicaeensis and Conyza dioscoridis, which are succulents that account for less than 1% of vegetation in the area.

New fluorescein and rhodamine B-labeled antifilarial drug DEC analogues for use in drug localization studies with confocal microscopy have been prepared by a high-yield three-step synthesis. The resulting beta-amine-substituted DEC analogue has a single ethyl substituent which is beta-aminated to accommodate the fluorophore of either fluorescein isothiocyananate or rhodamine B. Confocal microscopy is used to show that the drug accumulates in the adult filarial worms in the pharynx, esophagus, and near the nerve ring of all adults, as well as in the uteri and vulva and the testes of the females and males.