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Forests play a significant role for human’s well-being. Economists’ attention is mostly drawn on the market value of forest products. The trend, however, is changing as non-market values of forests are increasingly appreciated and measured. Recently, the ecosystem value of forest has been studied by natural resource economists and its role on human welfare is ensured. This paper indicates that the annual use value of the ecosystem services such as water conservation, soil protection, carbon fixation, nutrient cycling, water purification, air pollution absorption and recreation provided by forests is not only worth millions of dollars, but also in per hectare terms much more than hitherto known. This value for the Mazandaran forest reserve (MFR) ranged US$ 14.2–14.8 million or about US$ 6676.9–6785.6 per ha. If these are accounted for, then governments and societies faced with the development versus conservation dilemma can create more understanding decisions and policies that will assist conserve forests and the ecosystem services they provide, and thereby promulgate human well-being and sustainable development. Realization about these significant intangible benefits will assist in more informed decisions and policies that will help conserve forest ecosystems and the services they provide as well as promote human well-being and sustainable development.

Cheetah is one of the endangered wildlife species in different countries around the world, including Iran, and has been included in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Today, Iran is the only place where Asiatic Cheetahs can be found, and the latest estimates indicate that only 30 to 40 Asiatic Cheetahs remain. The present study aimed to prioritize the ecosystem functions and services for Asiatic Cheetahs in Iran from the perspectives of experts and professionals. After a literature review, based on the 2018 Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES), among Provisioning, Cultural, and Regulation and Maintenance functions, the Cultural and Regulation and Maintenance functions and 14 services were extracted for Asiatic Cheetahs in Iran. Next, by using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the Delphi method, the priority of functions and services was investigated in two stages. The results showed that the most important functions and services were, respectively, as follows: Cultural (4.37), Regulation and Maintenance (4.32) functions, and services related to the Bequest value (4.95) of Asiatic Cheetahs; Existence value (4.93); Educational (4.58); Aesthetic (4.47); Entertainment (recreation and ecotourism) (4.44); Symbolic (4.40); Scientific (3.67), Cultural (3.55), Biodiversity (4.82); and Disease control (3.82). The necessary measures for preventing the extinction of Asiatic Cheetahs include the construction of wildlife corridors in habitats of Cheetahs, promoting participation of communities and non-governmental organizations in the sustainable management of Cheetah habitats, and designing coins with Cheetah to attract public attention and support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction The growing importance of energy resources in the formation and growth of economic processes, as well as the need to exploit these resources based on environmental considerations and sustainable economic development, the issue of energy saving as an important issue in all economic infrastructures, including industry. Global warming, declining crop yields, climate change and acid rain are the result of fossil fuel consumption. Hence, in recent years, there has been a growing global emphasis on renewable energy across both developed and developing nations. The primary objective is to decrease reliance on conventional energy sources, mitigate environmental pollution, and attain sustainable energy practices. Materials and Ways In the present study, a multi-objective mathematical planning model was designed, in which the optimal crop cultivation model in the southern grove area of Babol city, taking into account the maximum profit from the sale of crops, relying on expanding the use of renewable energy sources in the supply basket Irrigation water and reduction of fossil energy consumption used in irrigation water supply were determined. The objective functions of the study are in the form of two objectives: profit maximization and minimization of greenhouse gas emissions. The amount of profit considered in the present study is equal to the difference between income from crop production and total costs, including irrigation, planting and harvesting costs, seed costs, fertilizers and pesticides, and labor costs. The greenhouse gases considered in this study encompass CO2, N2O, and CH4, with the objective of minimizing their emissions for the determination of an optimal crop pattern. The study endeavors to resolve the proposed nonlinear multi-objective pattern utilizing the constraint epsilon method. Subsequently, employing the energy link indexes (E), the optimal solution is identified among the proposed alternatives through the TOPSIS multi-criteria decision model. The statistical population for this investigation comprises farmers in the southern forest area of Babol city. The analysis of results has been conducted using Matlab, Lingo, and Excel software. Results and Discussion In this study, a multi-objective model with objective functions of profit maximization and minimization of greenhouse gas emissions subject to energy, energy flow, water, fertilizer, and capital and land constraints using the method the constraint is resolved and eventually the study decision variables are obtained. In terms of recyclable energy, the model suggests that four types of Tarom rice, Shiroodi rice, soybean, and corn be grown with 0.40, 0.34, 0.14 and 0.12 ha / ha, respectively. As can be seen, in accordance with the outputs of the optimal model in terms of renewable energy, most of the cultivated land is allocated to Tarom and Shiroodi rice. The total amount of energy required in the optimal model in terms of renewable energy was 2518 kWh, of which fossil energy is 79% and solar energy is 21%. According to the calculations made in Equation 3, to provide 21% (518 kWh) of solar electricity required by the irrigation system in order to irrigate one hectare of the proposed model of the optimal model in the study area, a solar panel with a capacity of 0.22 kW will be required. The results of the model show that in terms of renewable energy, with the implementation of the proposed model, the profit of farmers in the region per hectare increases from 14776.21 to 14778.18 million rials compared to the situation of non-renewable energy in the entire growing season. In other words, in the current situation, people cultivate crops regardless of energy consumption and production costs (traditional method of rice production by local farmers), while by choosing the right model, the farmer's economic benefits can be increased by 0.013%. At the same time, it saved a significant amount of fossil energy consumption.The minimum emission target of the model in terms of renewable energy states that for the cultivation of 0.40 hectares of Tarom rice, 0.34 hectares of Shiroodi, 0.14 hectares of soybean and 0.12 hectares of corn, at the rate of 2836 kg equivalent to CO2 pollution Fertilizers, pesticides and fossil fuel consumption will be released, which is 9% less than the current situation where only fossil fuels are used to irrigate crops. Conclusion In the present study, the interests of farmers were considered by considering the maximum profit from the sale of agricultural products by relying on the use of renewable energy sources in the energy basket of the agricultural sector (by reducing the fuel consumption of fossil energy sources used) in determining the cultivation pattern. Optimally calculated and compared with current conditions. The results show that the optimal model in terms of renewable energy, shows a more appropriate achievement of goals than in the absence of renewable energy. To this end, it is suggested that agricultural policy makers, by promoting the use of solar energy in irrigation and the use of this large capacity in the country, justify farmers to the potential benefits of solar energy (in the agricultural sector) and its widespread use, reduce current agricultural subsidies in the energy sector. Fossilization and subsidizing solar energy, encouraging the private sector to invest in solar projects can help power irrigation projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the second half of the twenty-first century, economic change, population growth and globalization were the main factors driving the deforestation in the South Asian countries. To identify the effects due to socioeconomic factors affecting deforestation in such countries, this study applied the spatial econometrics model based on data from 18 selected countries for the period between 2005 and 2015. The spatial correlation tests were showing that ignoring the effects of spatial correlation cause bias in results. The results of the model also confirmed the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for the selected countries with a turning point of $ 5,107. Our findings illustrated that increasing GDP per capita in neighbouring countries through interregional mobility of inputs of production will increase deforestation in the target country. The increase in the exchange rate in neighbouring countries due to the increase in imports of forest products and the non-cutting of domestic forest resources will reduce deforestation in the target country. Increased population density and unemployment in neighbouring countries due to reduced job opportunities and increased migration to the target country, followed by increased demand for food and increased land demand, led to increased deforestation in the target country. Finally, increasing the human development index variable has reduced deforestation in the target country. However, changing this variable in neighbouring countries has not affected the deforestation of the target country. Therefore, in a world with increasing economic growth, it is suggested that to prevent deforestation by improving the human development index, eradicating the problem of unemployment, and eradicating poverty redouble efforts. As the results of this study showed, the population had a direct and significant effect on deforestation in selected countries. Due to the increase in population growth in different years, it is recommended that the population issue be given more attention by looking at the requirements of sustainable development to reduce environmental degradation, mainly deforestation. Because according to the results of this study, the lack of rapid population growth reduces deforestation in selected countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The final energy consumption per capita in Iran in the agricultural sector is 3.4, as well for household sector is 2, besides the commercial and public sectors are 1.6, and transportation and industry are 1.4 times the global average. This is due to low efficiency in operation, high energy consumption, as well as the use of energy goods and services. The use of renewable energy in the agricultural sector, while increasing the security of energy supply, will reduce global warming, stimulate economic growth, create jobs, and increase per capita income and social justice and environmental protection in all areas. The purpose of this study is to investigate farmers' preferences for using solar energy in Sari. Materials and Methods: The Choice Experiment methods allow researchers to focus on valuing final changes as multidimensional features rather than discrete changes. Choosing between options encourages respondents to examine their preferences in detail related to different management programs. The Choice Experiment test approach consists of several steps, which include designing the Choice Experiment test, determining the sample size and method of data collection, estimation process, and modeling the Choice Experiment test. Designing a Choice Experiment test consists of five important steps which are defining attributes, determining the relevant levels, conducting an experimental design, constructing Choice sets, and measuring preferences. After determining the criteria affecting the prioritization of renewable energy, liketechnical, environmental, economic, social, and political criteria, in order to investigate the willingness to Pay of Sari farmers, a test questionnaire was designed. The criteria obtained from the review of prioritization of renewable energy were considered as the attributes of the Choice Experiment and the price attribute was added to the above criteria. A total of six technical, economic, social, political, environmental, and price attributes were considered to investigate farmers' willingness to pay. In the review of the studies and the current situation, the levels of each of the attributes were determined. To determine the levels of price attribute, these points were considered; the price of agricultural electricity per kilowatt-hour is 383 Rials, which was approximately 400 Rials for the current situation. Results and Discussion: To investigate the farmers' preferences for using solar energy, 98 questionnaires of farmers in Sari were completed in September 2019. Each questionnaire included 8 choice set cards and each card included three options, based on which, the number of observations in Sari is equal to 2352 observations. The purpose of this study is to investigate the preferences of farmers in Sari for the use of solar energy. For this purpose, the Multinomial logit, the Random parameter logit, the latent class, and the Random parameter logit latent class are used. Based on the results of the Multinomial logit method, environmental and price attributes at the level of one percent and economic attribute at the level of five percent are statistically significant, but political, social, and technical attributes are not statistically significant. The Alternative-specific Constants (ASC) in the first and second options are not statistically significant. Based on the results of the Random Parameter Logit estimation method, environmental, economic and price attributes are statistically significant at the level of one percent. Technical, political, and social attributes are not statistically significant, which shows that farmers do not make a significant difference between these two attributes. The Alternative-specific Constants (ASC) are significant in the first option at the level of five percent and the second option at the level of one percent. The results of latent class estimation show that in the first class, environmental, economic, political, social, and price attributes are statistically significant at the level of one percent and technical attribute at the level of ten percent. The Alternative-specific Constants (ASC) are statistically significant at the level of one percent in the first class. In the second class, technical attribute at the level of five percent and environmental attribute at the level of ten percent are significant, besides other attributes in the second class are not statistically significant. The most sensitive class is the first class and farmers of the second class are considered the base class. The results obtained from the Bayesian and Akaike criteria of different classes showed that the two classes have the lowest values of BIC and AIC criteria and the class is appropriate. After determining the appropriate class, the model was estimated. The results of model estimation were calculated by the Latent Class Random Parameter logit method. In the first class, environmental attributes and price are significant at the level of one percent and economical attributes at the level of five percent. Also, the Alternative-specific Constants (ASC) is significant at the level of one percent, but, in the second class, the attributes are not statistically significant. Technical, environmental, economic, political, social, and price attributes, as well as the option of status quo or the Alternative-specific Constants (ASC) in the second class, do not affect farmers' utility due to the lack of statistical significance. Conclusion: A comparison of the results obtained from the four methods shows that the highest value of the estimated coefficient for environmental attributes was in the latent class method and the lowest value was in the multinomial logit method; Comparison of fitted methods shows that the highest Log-likelihood is related to the latent class random parameter logit method and the lowest value is related to the multinomial logit method. Accordingly, the highest value of Akaike and Bayesian criteria is related to the multinomial logit method and the lowest value is related to the latent class random parameter logit method which is better than other methods according to the good fit criterion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, national parks as a natural resource capital are facing many challenges. Therefore, economic valuation of its functions and services is one of the most important categories of planning and sustainable ecosystem management. The present study aimed to estimate the economic value of ecosystem services in the Lar National Park, Iran. To this aim, the methods of revealed willingness to pay, imputed willingness to pay, and expressed willingness to pay were used. The results of this research showed the economic value of water resources reservation services (1619.802 Million Dollars, $M), soil conservation services (9.218 $M), soil production services (0.804 $M), recreation services (3.004 $M), habitat service (36.722 $M), production services (1.312 $M), carbon sequestration (847.109 $M), and oxygen supply services (93.618 $M). Finally, the total economic valuation of the use services was estimated to be $1867.087 M. Since more than 97% of the values are related to the water conservation and gas regulation services, sustainable ecosystem management is essential for preserving and expanding these services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The threat of climate change over the past decades has become more prominent among environmental experts. As a result, economists and environmental researchers are more likely to pursue environmentally-friendly economic growth. The present study examines the variables of open trade, population, GDP, and its square to study the Kuznets environmental hypothesis regarding carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxide emissions in three separate equations, which have, to the authors' best knowledge, been rarely addressed in the literature. The study period was from 1990 to 2016 conducted on 20 countries in the Asian Productivity Organization (APO). This hypothesis has not been studied regarding air pollution among APO members states. The panel ARDL method was used regarding the panel data applied for the structure of the research data. According to the results, the Kuznets environmental hypothesis was approved as reversed U for carbon dioxide and methane gases in the long run, but not for nitrous oxide. The short-term results also indicate the rejection of the Kuznets environmental hypothesis among the studied countries. The variable of trade had a negative correlation with the emission of all three greenhouse gases. Also, the earning elasticity estimated for CO2, N2O, and CH4 at 0.4, 0.38 and 0.04, respectively show that the effect of GDP growth on CO2 emissions is higher than that of N2O and CH4 emissions, indicating the importance of CO2, which causes more air pollution than other greenhouse gases and will have an important impact on the quality of the environment. Therefore, it is recommended to consider more measures for curbing carbon dioxide than for other greenhouse gases to prevent its emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the rural population, an improvement in the income of the agriculture and allied sectors is essential for improving the welfare, rural economic prosperity, and the overall economic development. The objective of this study was to determine the optimal pattern in various activities of forest fringe villagers of Hezarjarib area in 2013 for management of resources and rural development planning. For this purpose, the sample size was estimated to be 160 households out of a total of 472, by the use of proportional random sampling method. To collect data, we used a questionnaire whose reliability coefficient was determined as 0.81, by using the split-half method. The results of linear and goal programming model showed that, among the conventional activities of villagers, animal husbandry activity with the highest proportion played the key role in households' welfare, representing 51.42% of the total income of household. Moreover, Goal Programing (GP) model was determined as a useful model to increase households' welfare (10.42%) and reduce deforestation (74.6%). Accordingly, it is indicated that there is a potential to improve existing conditions and access to greater welfare in the study area. Thus, the production planning and guidance according to the above results can play an important role in villagers' activity development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]