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The recent surge in the plant-based protein market has resulted in high demands for soybean genotypes with improved grain yield, seed protein and oil content, and essential amino acids (EAAs). Given the quantitative nature of these traits, complex interactions among seed components, as well as between seed components and environmental factors and management practices, add complexity to the development of desired genotypes. In this study, the across-environment seed protein stability of 449 genetically diverse plant introductions was assessed, revealing that genotypes may display varying sensitivities to such environmental stimuli. The EAAs valine, phenylalanine, and threonine showed the highest variable importance toward the variation in stability, while both seed protein and oil contents were among the explanatory variables with the lowest importance. In addition, 56 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were significantly associated with various seed components. Despite the strong phenotypic Pearson's correlation observed among most seed components, many independent genomic regions associated with one or few seed components were identified. These findings provide insights for improving the seed concentration of specific EAAs and reducing the negative correlation between seed protein and oil contents., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Colostrum quality and volume are fundamental for calves because it is the primary supplier of antibodies and the first source of energy, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins for the newborn. Assessing the detailed composition (i.e., AA and mineral content) of bovine colostrum (BC) on-line and at a reasonable cost would help dairy stakeholders such as farmers or veterinarians for precision feeding purposes and industries producing preparations containing BC such as foodstuff, supplements, and medicaments. In the present study we evaluated mid- (MIRS) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) prediction ability for AA and mineral composition of individual BC. Second, we the investigated the major factors affecting the phenotypic variability of such traits also evaluating the correlations with the Ig concentration. Results demonstrated that MIRS and NIRS were able to provide sufficiently accurate predictions for all the AA. The coefficient of determination in external validation (R 2 V ) fell, in fact, within the range of 0.70 to 0.86, with the exception of Ile, His, and Met. Only some minerals reached a sufficient accuracy (i.e., Ca, P, S, and Mg; R 2 V ≥ 0.66) using MIRS, and also S (R 2 V = 0.87) using NIRS. Phenotypically, both parity and calving season affected the variability of these BC composition traits. Heifers' colostrum was the one with the greatest concentration of Ca and P, the 2 most abundant minerals. These minerals were however very low in cows calving in summer compared with the rest of the year. The pattern of AA across parities and calving season was not linear, likely because their variability was scarcely (or not) affected by these effects. Finally, samples characterized by high IgG concentration were those presenting on average greater concentration of AA. Findings suggest that infrared spectroscopy has the potential to be used to predict certain AA and minerals, outlining the possibility of implementing on-site analyses for the evaluation of the broad-sense BC quality., (© 2023, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Current regulations require that the assessment of protein quality in infant formula be determined using the protein efficiency ratio (PER) rat bioassay where the growth of rats fed a test protein is compared with the growth of rats fed casein. This review cites authoritative body opinions that the PER is not a preferred method for scoring protein quality, particularly as applied to the infant formula. Methodological recommendations specified by FDA and recent guidance propose to control nonprotein dietary variables in the PER. In contrast, the essential amino acid pattern of human milk has been adopted internationally as the standard for protein quality in infant formula. Because casein, the control protein in the PER fails to meet the standard of human milk essential amino acids, the PER based on casein can generate a false assurance of the quality of protein in an infant formula. FDA should revise the method of demonstrating the quality factor for the biological quality of protein to the essential amino acid pattern of human milk, which would be simpler, conform to international standards, and should be considered by FDA under a new statute. Alternate methods of determination of protein quality can be used selectively when there are questions about the digestibility of new protein sources or the effects of manufacturing processes., (Copyright © 2023 American Society for Nutrition. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Hairless canary seed ( Phalaris canariensis L.) is a novel true cereal that is now approved for human consumption in Canada and the United States. This true cereal grain has higher protein content (22%) than oat (13%) and wheat (16%) and represents a valuable source of plant proteins. Assessment of canary seed protein quality is therefore essential to evaluate its digestibility and ability to provide sufficient amounts of essential amino acids for human requirements. In this study, the protein nutritional quality of four hairless canary seed varieties (two brown and two yellow) were evaluated in comparison to oat and wheat. The assessment of anti-nutrients contents (phytate, trypsin inhibitor activity, and polyphenols) showed that brown canary seed varieties had the highest content in phytate and oat the highest in polyphenols. Trypsin inhibitor level was comparable among studied cereals, but slightly higher in the brown canary seed Calvi variety. In regard to protein quality, canary seed had a well-balanced amino acid profile and was particularly high in tryptophan, an essential amino acid normally lacking in cereals. The in vitro protein digestibility of canary seeds as determined by both the pH-drop and INFOGEST (international network of excellence on the fate of food in the gastrointestinal tract) protocols appears slightly lower than wheat and higher than oat. The yellow canary seed varieties showed better overall digestibility than the brown ones. For all studied cereal flours, the limiting amino acid was lysine. The calculated in vitro PDCAAS (protein digestibility corrected amino acid score) and DIAAS (digestible indispensable amino acid score) were higher for the yellow C05041 cultivar than the brown Bastia, similar to those of wheat, but lower than those of oat proteins. This study demonstrates the feasibility and utility of in vitro human digestion models for the assessment of protein quality for comparison purpose.

Background: Hempseed meal, a by-product of the hempseed oil processing stream, is a potential alternative source for food proteins. Efficient extraction of proteins from hempseed meal is challenging owing to differences in the structure and solubility of various protein fractions present in the seed. In the present study, protein was extracted from hempseed meal using four different solvents, including aqueous NaOH, KOH, NaHCO 3 and NaCl, at four different concentrations with the aim of improving the recovery of protein fractions rich in essential amino acids., Results: Extraction using alkaline solvents provided superior protein recovery (60-78%) compared with NaCl solution and control extractions (20-48% and 21%, respectively). The concentration of alkali or salt (0.25-1 mol L -1 ) had a minor but significant impact on the yield. Amino acid composition analysis revealed that hempseed meal contains 24% (54.5 ± 0.19 mg g -1 ) essential amino acids of total amino acids, and extraction with NaOH, KOH, NaHCO 3 or NaCl did not improve the selective extraction of essential amino acids compared to control experiments. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis allowed the identification of edestin and albumin in the extracts obtained with NaHCO 3 and NaCl solvents, with results further showing that the type of extraction solvent influences protein extraction selectivity., Conclusion: Although alkali solvents provide superior extraction yields, extraction with water resulted in extracts containing the highest proportion of proteins bearing essential amino acids. According to the results of SDS-PAGE, extraction using alkali solvents induced protein crosslinking. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

To make full use of tea seed cake protein (TSCP), this study investigated the physicochemical and functional properties of TSCP, including the TSCP extract and three ultrafiltration fractions TSCP-1 (Mw > 10 kDa), TSCP-2 (3.5 kDa < Mw < 10 kDa), and TSCP-3 (Mw < 3.5 kDa). After ultrafiltration, the content, thermal stability, and surface hydrophobicity of TSCP were increased, and the molecular weight distribution and structure of TSCP showed significant differences. In terms of functionality, each fraction showed its advantages. Specifically, compared with the others, TSCP had better solubility and foaming properties, and TSCP-1 had significantly higher oil absorption capacity, and TSCP-2 had better water absorption capacity and emulsifying properties, and TSCP-3 can flow more easily (p < 0.05). In terms of nutritional value, the content of essential amino acids in all samples was sufficient. The degree of hydrolysis of TSCP was highest (80.98 ± 1.50%), and ultrafiltration decreased digestibility. These results indicated that ultrafiltration effectively improved the structure and functional properties of TSCP, and the obtained fractions can be applied to different scenarios. Practical Application: Tea seed cakes are rich in protein and usually regarded as byproducts during oil processing. Because of its good functional properties, tea seed cake proteins obtained by ultrafiltration have the potential to be used as ingredients for food., (© 2022 Institute of Food Technologists®.)

The physicochemical, structural, and functional properties of albumin, globulin, glutelin, and protein isolate (JSPI) extracted from jackfruit seeds were investigated. Protein fractions and JSPI were rich in amino acids, which can be comparable to soy protein. Other essential amino acids except histidine met the FAO/WHO/UNO-recommended intake for infants and adults. Jackfruit seed proteins were mainly composed of 17-26 kDa polypeptides, β-sheet, and random coil were the main secondary structures. Glutelin (572.55) and JSPI (246.14) have higher H 0 under neutral conditions, consistent with the solubility and emulsification properties results. Albumin and globulin had good solubility and were mostly soluble under neutral or weak alkaline conditions. In general, protein fractions and JSPI exhibited good foaming and emulsification properties. Therefore, jackfruit seed proteins have the potential to be nutritious functional ingredients in the food industry. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Jackfruit seed proteins had high essential amino acids content and good functional properties. They can be used as a new type of functional ingredients in the food industry, which can not only reduce the environment pollution of discarded seeds but also improve use of plant protein., (© 2022 Institute of Food Technologists®.)

Mammalian cell culture processes rely heavily on empirical knowledge in which process control remains a challenge due to the limited characterization/understanding of cell metabolism and inability to predict the cell behaviors. This study facilitates control of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) processes through a forecast-based feeding approach that predicts multiple essential amino acids levels in the culture from easily acquired viable cell density data. Multiple cell growth behavior forecast extrapolation approaches are considered with logistic curve fitting found to be the most effective. Next, the nutrient-minimized CHO genome-scale model is combined with the growth forecast model to generate essential amino acid forecast profiles of multiple CHO batch cultures. Comparison of the forecast with the measurements suggests that this algorithm can accurately predict the concentration of most essential amino acids from cell density measurement with error mitigated by incorporating off-line amino acids concentration measurements. Finally, the forecast algorithm is applied to CHO fed-batch cultures to support amino acid feeding control to control the concentration of essential amino acids below 1-2 mM for lysine, leucine, and valine as a model over a 9-day fed batch culture while maintaining comparable growth behavior to an empirical-based culture. In turn, glycine production was elevated, alanine reduced and lactate production slightly lower in control cultures due to metabolic shifts in branched-chain amino acid degradation. With the advantage of requiring minimal measurement inputs while providing valuable and in-advance information of the system based on growth measurements, this genome model-based amino acid forecast algorithm represent a powerful and cost-effective tool to facilitate enhanced control over CHO and other mammalian cell-based bioprocesses., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Infant formulas, designed to provide similar nutritional composition and performance to human milk, are recommended when breastfeeding is not enough to provide for the nutritional needs of children under 12 months of age. In this context, the present study aimed to assess the protein quality and essential amino acid content of both starting (phase 1) and follow-up (phase 2) formulas from different manufacturers. The chemical amino acid score and protein digestibility corrected by the amino acid score were calculated. The determined protein contents in most formulas were above the maximum limit recommended by FAO and WHO guidelines and at odds with the protein contents declared in the label. All infant formulas contained lactoferrin (0.06 to 0.44 g·100 g -1 ) and α-lactalbumin (0.02 to 1.34 g·100 g -1 ) below recommended concentrations, whereas ĸ-casein (8.28 to 12.91 g·100 g -1 ), α-casein (0.70 to 2.28 g·100 g -1 ) and β-lactoglobulin (1.32 to 4.19 g·100 g -1 ) were detected above recommended concentrations. Essential amino acid quantification indicated that threonine, leucine and phenylalanine were the most abundant amino acids found in the investigated infant formulas. In conclusion, infant formulas are still unconforming to nutritional breast milk quality and must be improved in order to follow current global health authority guidelines.

The nutritional value and digestibility of leaf proteins is still a major issue. Therefore, the goal of this work was to optimize the production of a protein concentrate (PC) from Moringa Oleifera defatted leaves (MODL) by enzymatic extraction using Viscozyme L and evaluate its nutritional quality and digestibility. Protein extraction conditions were screened using a factorial design. Enzyme/Substrate ratio and pH had no significant effect, whereas, the significant variables, temperature (°C), enzyme concentration and incubation time (h) were optimized by central composite design (CCD). PC contained 55.7% of proteins with a balanced amino acid profile when compared with MODL and higher content of essential amino acids (EAAs) (488.6-402.9 mg/g of protein respectively). Improvement on protein digestibility was observed for MODL compared to PC (64.75-99.86% respectively) and higher protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) (62.10-91.41% respectively). PC meets FAO protein quality expectations., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background & Aims: Nutritional composition is key for skeletal muscle maintenance into older age. Yet the acute effects of collagen protein blended with other protein sources, in relation to skeletal muscle anabolism, are ill-defined. We investigated human muscle protein synthesis (MPS) responses to a 20 g blend of collagen protein hydrolysate + milk protein (CP+MP, 125 ml) oral nutritional supplement (ONS) vs. 20 g non-blended milk protein source (MP, 200 ml) ONS, in older adults., Methods: Healthy older men (N = 8, 71±1 y, BMI: 27±1 kg·m -2 ) underwent a randomized trial of 20 g protein, from either a CP+MP blend (Fresubin®3.2 kcal DRINK), or a kcal-matched (higher in essential amino acids (EAA) ONS of MP alone. Vastus lateralis (VL) MPS and plasma AA were determined using stable isotope-tracer mass spectrometry; anabolic signaling was quantified via immuno-blotting in VL biopsies taken at baseline and 2/4 h after ONS feeding. Plasma insulin was measured via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Measures were taken at rest, after the feed (FED) and after the feed + exercise (FED-EX) conditions (unilateral leg exercise, 6 × 8, 75% 1-RM)., Results: MP resulted in a greater increase in plasma leucine (MP mean: 152 ± 6 μM, CP+MP mean: 113 ± 4 μM (Feed P < 0.001) and EAA (MP mean: 917 ± 25 μM, CP+MP mean: 786 ± 15 μM (Feed P < 0.01) than CP+MP. CP + MP increased plasma glycine (peak 385 ± 57 μM (P < 0.05)), proline (peak 323 ± 29 μM (P < 0.01)) and non-essential amino acids (NEAA) (peak 1621 ± 107 μM (P < 0.01)) with MP showing no increase. Plasma insulin increased in both trials (CP+MP: 58 ± 10 mU/mL (P < 0.01), MP: 42 ± 6 mU/mL (P < 0.01), with peak insulin greater with CP+MP vs. MP (P < 0.01). MPS demonstrated equivalent increases in response to CP+MP and MP under both FED (MP: 0.039 ± 0.005%/h to 0.081 ± 0.014%/h (P < 0.05), CP+MP: 0.042 ± 0.004%/h to 0.085 ± 0.007%/h (P < 0.05)) and FED-EX (MP: 0.039 ± 0.005%/h to 0.093 ± 0.013%/h (P < 0.01), CP+MP: 0.042 ± 0.004%/h to 0.105 ± 0.015%/h, (P < 0.01)) conditions. FED muscle p-mTOR fold-change from baseline increased to a greater extent with CP+MP vs. MP (P < 0.05), whilst FED-EX muscle p-eEF2 fold-change from baseline decreased to a greater extent with CP+MP vs. MP (P < 0.05); otherwise anabolic signaling responses were indistinguishable., Conclusion: Fresubin®3.2 kcal DRINK, which contains a 20 g mixed blend of CP+MP, resulted in equivalent MPS responses to MP alone. Fresubin® 3.2 Kcal DRINK may provide a suitable alternative to MP for use in older adults and a convenient way to supplement calories and protein to improve patient adherence and mitigate muscle mass loss., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest PJA has acted as a consultant to Fresenius-Kabi. All other authors declare no potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The effect of gaseous ozone (500-1000 ppm) treatment on the protein, amino acid, and fatty acid profiles, mineral content, and the microstructure of the chickpea grains were evaluated. Though protein content was not altered significantly, SDS PAGE profiling exhibited minor modifications in the protein bands of the treated chickpea. The essential amino acids (EAA) and total amino acids (TAA) slightly decreased, ratio of EAA to TAA increased, while the calculated protein efficiency ratio decreased. Significant decrease in the SH content and non-significant increase in SS content was observed at higher doses of ozone. The overall saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (%) were in the range of 13.05-13.49 and 86.51-87.61, respectively. The minerals were stable and the HCl extractability decreased in the ozonated samples. There was some minor degradation of intracellular cell wall and distribution of starch and protein bodies in the ozonated sample., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Pumpkin seeds are rich source of nutritionally well-balanced proteins. The biochemical, nutritional, and functional properties of the protein isolate (PPI) and protein fractions from pumpkin seed were evaluated. Extraction method for PPI was optimized by varying NaCl (0, 0.5, 1 M) and flour-to-solution ratio (1:5, 1:10, 1:25), at pH 9.0. Proteins were extracted by Osborne procedure and the alkali fraction (AF, 45.82%) was found to be the predominant fraction. SDS-PAGE profile of PPI revealed major bands ranging from 50 to 7 kDa. AF contained all the essential amino acids (EAA) except lysine and threonine, as required by pre-school children (FAO/WHO). PPI and AF showed better protein efficiency ratio and EAA/TAA (total) %, indicating the presence of good quality proteins. Functional properties were found to be comparable with soybean protein isolate. Circular dichroism studies showed that water fraction comprised of α-helix and random coils, while salt and alkali fractions contained β-strand and coils., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Marine feed ingredients derived from cephalopods (e.g., squid) and crustaceans (e.g., krill) are commercially used to improve the palatability of shrimp diets. Increase in global demand for shrimps has resulted in overfishing of these marine organisms and is a matter of concern. Insect protein hydrolysate could be a sustainable alternative for the possible replacement of these marine feed ingredients. During this study, four formulations: diet A (control: not containing any palatability enhancer), diet B (containing squid meal and krill oil), diet C (containing 1% insect protein hydrolysate), and diet D (containing 2% insect protein hydrolysate) were tested for (1) time required by first subject to begin feeding (time to strike) and (2) palatability in Litopenaeus vannamei . Additionally, the chemical composition of all four diet formulations was also analyzed. Results indicate that all diets had similar crude composition. The major essential amino acids in all diets were leucine and lysine, whereas eicosapentaenoic acid was the major omega-3 fatty acid in all diets. There were no significant differences between the mean time to strike for all the tested formulations. Palatability of tested formulations was found in the following order: diet D > diet C > diet B = diet A ( p < 0.05), indicating that addition of squid meal and krill oil has no effect on palatability in comparison to control, whereas inclusion of insect protein hydrolysates significantly improves the palatability of formulations. Palatability enhancement potential of insect protein hydrolysate could be attributed to the high free amino acid content and water solubility in comparison to squid meal.

Plant-based protein foods are increasingly common, but data on their nutritional protein quality are scarce. This study evaluated it for seitan (wheat-based food), tofu (soya-based food), soya milk, and a pea emulsion. The true ileal digestibility (TID) of their amino acids was determined in minipigs, to calculate the digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS). The TID of the proteins was high and not significantly different between the foods tested: 97% for seitan, 95% for tofu, 92% for soya milk and 94% for pea emulsion. There were only minor differences in individual amino acid TIDs. DIAAS ranking was thus essentially driven by the amino acid composition of the food: soya-based food > pea emulsion > seitan. Nevertheless, the lower TID of sulphur-containing amino acids in tofu than in soya milk induced a significant decrease in DIAAS (from 117% to 97%), highlighting the importance of the matrix effect on nutritional protein quality., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study is to prompt the recovery of industrial by-products through the production of new functional foods; it takes advantage from new throughput technologies with low environmental impact and high economic sustainability. In the field of fish processing, in order to recover the worthy protein-rich fish waste, residues from the production of Anchovies ( Engraulis encrasicolus ) have been converted into hydrolysate through enzymatic treatment. The obtained hydrolysate product showed a promising biological and nutritional content made by differently sized peptides and free amino acids endowed with assessed benefic effects. The study showed the possibility to produce a dry powder with an activity water (aw) of 0.3-0.5 and an essential amino acids (EAA) fraction of 42.0% over the total amino acids (TAAs). These results pave the way to the smart recovery of commercial products featured by high nutritional value, either as stand-alone items or as components of functional foods.

Consumer demand for plant protein-based products is high and expected to grow considerably in the next decade. Factors contributing to the rise in popularity of plant proteins include: (1) potential health benefits associated with increased intake of plant-based diets; (2) consumer concerns regarding adverse health effects of consuming diets high in animal protein (e.g., increased saturated fat); (3) increased consumer recognition of the need to improve the environmental sustainability of food production; (4) ethical issues regarding the treatment of animals; and (5) general consumer view of protein as a "positive" nutrient (more is better). While there are health and physical function benefits of diets higher in plant-based protein, the nutritional quality of plant proteins may be inferior in some respects relative to animal proteins. This review highlights the nutritional quality of plant proteins and strategies for wisely using them to meet amino acid requirements. In addition, a summary of studies evaluating the potential benefits of plant proteins for both health and physical function is provided. Finally, potential safety issues associated with increased intake of plant proteins are addressed.

The quality and nutritional value of dietary proteins are determined by the quantity, digestibility and bioavailability of essential amino acids (EAA), which play a critical role in human growth, longevity and metabolic health. Plant-source protein is often deficient in one or more EAAs (e.g., branched-chain amino acids, lysine, methionine and/or tryptophan) and, in its natural form, is less digestible than animal-source protein. Nevertheless, dietary intake of plant-source protein has been promoted because of its potential health benefits, lower cost of production and lower environmental impact compared to animal-source protein. Implementation of dietary strategies that improve both human and planetary health are of critical importance and subject to growing interest from researchers and consumers. Therefore, in this review we analyse current plant protein intake patterns and discuss possible countermeasures that can enhance plant protein nutrition, examples include: (1) combining different plant proteins with complementary EAA profiles; (2) identification and commercial cultivation of new and novel high-quality plant proteins; (3) industrial and domestic processing methods; and (4) genome-editing techniques.

Beans ( Phaseolus spp.) are one of the most important legumes for their nutritional value and health benefits in many world regions. In addition to Phaseolus vulgaris , there are four additional species that are cultivated in many regions of the world and are a source of food for human consumption: P. lunatus , P. coccineus , P. polyanthus , and P. acutifolius. In this work, phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, and anti-nutritional compounds of 18 bean accessions, corresponding to four different species of the genus Phaseolus , were analyzed. In addition, their physical characteristics, proximate composition, and amino acid content were determined in order to compare their phytochemical composition and nutritional value. The species closest to each other in terms of essential amino acid content were P. polyanthus with P. vulgaris and P. lunatus with P. coccineus. Furthermore, there was a strong positive correlation between antioxidant activity and flavonoids, anthocyanins, and lectins with all the accessions collected. Significant differences in the content of phenolic compounds were found among the bean species studied. Therefore, in addition to P. vulgaris , other species such as P. coccineus and P. lunatus have high biological and antioxidant potential that could be beneficial to human health when consumed as nutraceutical foods.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is among the most cultivated legumes, with interesting agronomic and environmental properties, and great potential as a nutritious food. The nutritional value of cowpea can be improved by technological processing. In this study, we showed that natural fermentation improved bioavailability of protein, amino acids, and dietary essential minerals from cowpea in growing rats, thus strengthening its potential value as functional food or food supplement. Forty Wistar albino rats (48 ± 1.8 g), were fed one of four experimental diets ( n = 10 rats per diet): casein, raw cowpea, fermented cowpea or fermented and autoclaved cowpea. Despite lower growth indices of raw and fermented cowpea protein (PER, FTI) than casein, fermentation enhanced apparent digestibility of arginine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and valine, and true digestibility of essential amino acids, except for tyrosine and valine, compared to raw cowpea. On the other hand, autoclaving of fermented cowpea flour decreased apparent, as did true digestibility of sulfur amino acids. Regarding the nutritive utilization of dietary essential minerals, Vigna unguiculata was a good source of available P, Mg, and K, while fermentation significantly improved the availability of P. Overall, cowpea was a good source of digestible essential amino acids and minerals and fermentation significantly improved its nutritional value that was not further enhanced by autoclaving.

In order to reveal the main nutrients and functional ingredients in the shoots of Polygonatum cyrtonema, the polysaccharides, proteins, amino acids, and total phenols were determined. The tested samples cultured in Ma'nijiaonong, Hengtang village, Tianmushan town, Lin'an, Zhejiang, which were collected from three provenances(Pan'an and Longquan in Zhejiang and Qingyang in Anhui). The results showed that the polysaccharide content of the shoots varied from 2.34% to 12.73%, roughly one-third of rhizomes. The protein content varied from 107.75 to 192.49 mg·g~(-1), nearly 5.50 times more than rhizomes. Moreover, the average of total amino acid content was 193.13-248.74 mg·g~(-1), approximately 4.16 times of rhizomes. And the essential amino acids account for 35.57%-39.44% of the total amino acids content, which was close to the standard of the ideal protein proposed by FAO/WHO(the essential amino acid/total amino acid is about 40%). In addition, the taste amino acids(TaAA) changed from 160.12 to 208.29 mg·g~(-1), revealing the material basis of &quot;shoots were extremely delicious&quot; in Chinese ancient herbal medicine. Additionally, the total phenols varied from 51.21-58.76 mg·g~(-1), about 2.96 times of rhizomes. The DPPH free radical scavenging rate of tested shoots was over 95%, which obviously superior to rhizomes. Therefore, the shoots of P. cyrtonema is a very high-quality vegetable and functional food with good development potential. Furthermore, the main nutrients and functional substances in P. cyrtonema shoots are closely related to the provenances and harvesting seasons. It is important to improve the quality and yield of the shoots by strengthening the variety of breeding and cultivation techniques.

Background: Raw meat contains all indispensable amino acids (IAAs), but before human consumption, meat usually undergoes some degree of processing. Processing affects the 3-dimensional structure of proteins, which may affect amino acid (AA) digestibility and, therefore, overall protein quality., Objectives: The experiment aimed at determining digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) for pork products, and to test the hypothesis that processing increases DIAAS., Methods: Ten ileal cannulated gilts (body weight: 26.63 ± 1.62 kg) were randomly allotted to a 10 × 10 Latin square design with ten 7-d periods. Ileal digesta were collected for 9 h on days 6 and 7 of each period. Nine diets contained a single pork product (i.e., raw belly, smoked bacon, smoked-cooked bacon, non-cured ham, alternatively cured ham, conventionally cured ham, and loins heated to 63°C, 68°C, or 72°C) as the sole source of AAs. A nitrogen-free diet was formulated to determine basal endogenous losses of AAs, which enabled calculation of standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AAs. DIAAS were subsequently calculated according to the FAO., Results: All pork products had DIAAS >100 (as-is basis). Loin heated to 63°C had the greatest (P < 0.05) DIAAS for children 6 mo to 3 y and smoked-cooked bacon had the greatest (P < 0.05) DIAAS for children older than 3 y, adolescents, and adults. Raw belly, smoked bacon, and loins heated to 68°C and 72°C had a reduced (P < 0.05) DIAAS for both reference patterns compared with other proteins. Alternatively cured ham had greater (P < 0.05) DIAAS when compared with non-cured ham and conventionally cured ham., Conclusions: Bacon, ham, and loin are excellent proteins with DIAAS >100, and processing may sometimes, but not always, increase DIAAS., (Copyright © The Author(s) 2019.)

Biotin is a water-soluble B-complex vitamin that functions as a cofactor of five carboxylases. Because biotin-dependent carboxylases catalyze indispensable cellular metabolic functions, biotin deficiency is considered to be involved in various pathological conditions. Moreover, biotin supplementation shows pharmacological effects in vivo. However, the precise mechanisms by which biotin deficiency induces pathological conditions remain unclear. Although abnormal metabolites are used as indicators for biotin deficiency, few comprehensive analyses of total metabolites have been reported. In this study, we analyzed the metabolomic profiles of liver extracts prepared from biotin-sufficient (BS) and -deficient (BD) mice. Thirteen of 126 metabolites showed significantly different concentrations between liver extracts from BD and BS mice. The concentrations of 5 essential amino acids, Met, Val, Thr, Ile, and Leu, and 2 conditionally essential amino acids, Cys and Tyr were significantly lower in BD mice than in BS mice. Among these, the concentrations of sulfur-containing amino acids, Cys and Met, were more than 1.5-fold lower in BD mice. The concentrations of Met metabolites, such as S-adenosylmethionine and S-adenosylhomocysteine were not significantly different between the two groups. The concentrations of glutathione and its reaction intermediates γ-Glu-Cys tendency to be lower in BD mice. The present study revealed that biotin deficiency induces an abnormal amino acids composition, especially among sulfur-containing amino acids and provide important information on the effect of biotin as a pharmacological agent.

This research investigates the effect of swarming season and sourcing geographical area on the nutrient composition of R. differens. On a dry matter basis, protein (34.2-45.8%) and fat (42.2-54.3%) are the major macro-nutrients. Leucine (80. 9-88.5), lysine (54.0-69.8) and valine (59.2-61.8) are the most abundant essential amino acids (EAA) (mg/g protein). Tryptophan is the most limiting EAA. Its EAA composition is like the children and adults' reference protein. Its fat is highly unsaturated (63.5-64.7). Oleic (38.4-42.7), linoleic (19.0-23.0) and palmitic (26.6-27.8) fatty acids (FA) (g/100 g total FA) are the most abundant. Geographical area significantly influences its mineral content within seasons. Season significantly influences its fat, protein, ash and mineral content but not its AAs' and FAs' content. Both factors significantly influence its vitamin B12 content (0.73-1.35 µg/100 g)., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: During the industrial production of β-glucan, a protein-rich fraction remains as a by-product. Recovery of this protein as oat protein concentrate (OPC) results in a source of cereal protein for food and improves the overall economy of the process. In this study, a yoghurt-type product is developed by lactic acid fermentation of an OPC suspension after subjection to heat treatment to assure starch gelatinization., Results: In detail, the process of yoghurt production involved an initial heating step to 90 °C, followed by 24 h fermentation with a starter culture consisting of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus und Streptococcus thermophilus. The resulting yoghurt-type product was mildly sour (pH 4.2) with a certain amount of lactic acid (3.3 ± 0.2 g kg -1 ) and contained 4.9 × 10 6  cfu g -1 lactobacillus after 24 h fermentation. Scanning electron microscopy revealed a porous network presumably built up from the gelatinized starch fraction containing aggregated structures, between which were assumed to be aggregated oat proteins. Moreover, to a limited extent, proteolysis occurred during fermentation. Thus some of the proteolytic enzymes present in the yoghurt culture cleaved oat protein and released peptides. However, the effect on essential amino acids was small., Conclusion: The results of this study provide a deeper knowledge into the role of starch and protein in fermented OPC yoghurts. The structure of fermented OPC verifies the applicability of oat protein as an alternative source for yoghurt-type products. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Amino acid composition of metabolizable protein (MP) is important in dairy cattle diets, but effects of AA imbalances on energy and N utilization are unclear. This study determined the effect of different AA profiles within a constant supplemental MP level on whole-body energy and N partitioning in dairy cattle. Five rumen-fistulated Holstein-Friesian dairy cows (2.8 ± 0.4 lactations; 81 ± 11 d in milk; mean ± standard deviation) were randomly assigned to a 5 × 5 Latin square design in which each experimental period consisted of 5 d of continuous abomasal infusion followed by 2 d of rest. A total mixed ration consisting of 58% corn silage, 16% alfalfa hay, and 26% concentrate (dry matter basis) was formulated to meet 100 and 83% of net energy and MP requirements, respectively, and was fed at 90% of ad libitum intake by individual cow. Abomasal infusion treatments were saline (SAL) or 562 g/d of essential AA delivered in 4 profiles where individual AA content corresponded to their relative content in casein. The profiles were (1) a complete essential amino acid mixture (EAAC), (2) Ile, Leu, and Val (ILV), (3) His, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe, Trp, Val (GR1+ILV), and (4) Arg, His, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp (GR1+ALT). The experiment was conducted in climate respiration chambers to determine energy and N balance in conjunction with milk production and composition, digestibility, and plasma constituents. Compared with SAL, infusion of EAAC increased milk, protein, and lactose yield, increased energy retained as body protein, and did not affect milk N efficiency. Total N intake and urine N output was higher with all AA infusions relative to SAL. Compared with EAAC, infusions of GR1+ILV and GR1+ALT produced the same milk yield and the same yield and content of milk fat, protein, and lactose, and had similar energy and N retention. Milk N efficiency was not different between EAAC and GR1+ILV, but was lower with GR1+ALT compared with EAAC, and tended to be lower with GR1+ALT compared with GR1+ILV. Infusion of ILV tended to decrease dry matter intake compared with the other AA infusions. Milk production and composition was not different between ILV and SAL. Compared with EAAC, infusion of ILV decreased or tended to decrease milk, protein, and lactose yields and milk protein content, and increased milk fat and lactose content. Milk N efficiency decreased with ILV compared with SAL, EAAC, and GR1+ILV. Milk urea concentration was not affected by essential amino acid (EAA) infusions. Plasma urea concentration did not differ between EAAC and SAL, tended to increase with ILV and GR1+ILV over SAL, and increased with GR1+ALT compared with EAAC and SAL. In conclusion, removing Arg, Lys, and Thr or removing Ile, Leu, and Val from a complete EAA profile when the total amount of EAA infused remained constant did not impair milk production, but milk N efficiency decreased when Ile, Leu, and Val were absent. Infusion of only Ile, Leu, and Val decreased milk protein yield and content and reduced milk N efficiency compared with a complete EAA profile., (Copyright © 2019 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of supplementing rumen-protected methionine (RP-Met), threonine (RP-Thr), isoleucine (RP-Ile), and leucine (RP-Leu) individually or jointly to a low-protein diet, on the performance of lactating dairy cows, as well as to determine the effects of these amino acids (AA) on the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in vivo. Ten lactating Holstein cows were randomly allocated to a repeated 5 × 5 Latin square experiment with five 19-d periods. Treatments were high-protein diet (16% crude protein, positive control; HP), low-protein diet (12% crude protein, negative control; LP), LP plus RP-Met (LPM), LP plus RP-Met and RP-Thr (LPMT), and LP plus RP-Met, RP-Thr, RP-Ile, and RP-Leu (LPMTIL). The dry matter intakes (DMI) of the LP, LPM, and LPMT diets were lower than that of the HP diet, whereas the DMI of the LPMTIL diet was intermediate between the HP diet and the other LP diets. Supplementing RP-Met to the LP diet increased the yields of milk and milk protein, increased the content of milk urea N, and tended to increase milk N efficiency. Co-supplementation of RP-Thr with RP-Met resulted in no further milk production increase. Co-supplementation of all 4 rumen-protected amino acids (RP-AA) increased milk and lactose yields to the level of the HP diet and tended to increase milk protein yield compared with the LPMT diet. We found no significant differences in the contents and yields of milk components between the LPMTIL and HP diets except for a lower milk urea N content in the LPMTIL diet. Venous concentrations of the measured AA were similar across the LP and LP diets supplemented with RP-AA. Relative to levels of the HP diet, LP diets had higher venous concentrations of Met and Gly and tended to have higher Phe concentration and lower concentrations of Val and BCAA. The LPMTIL diet had higher venous concentrations of Arg, Lys, Met, Phe, and Glu, and a lower Val concentration. Phosphorylation status of the measured mTOR components in LPM and LPMT treatments were similar to those in the LP treatment but phosphorylation status of mTOR and eIF4E-binding protein 1 (4eBP1) in LPMTIL treatment were higher. The phosphorylation rates of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) in the 4 LP and LP plus RP-AA diets were higher than that of the HP diet. Overall, results of the present study supported the concept that under the relatively short time of this experiment, supplementing RP-AA, which are believed to stimulate the mTOR signal pathway, can lead to increased milk protein yield. This increase appears to be due to increased DMI, greater mTOR signaling, and greater eEF2 activity., (Copyright © 2019 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Chinese quince seed protein isolate (CPI) was extracted using aqueous extraction and the isoelectric precipitation method, and its physicochemical and functional properties were investigated. Results showed that CPI contained all essential amino acids with exception of methionine which met the minimum recommendations for adults (World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization). The electrophoresis analysis of sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel indicated that the molecular weights of protein fractions were approximately 15-60 kDa. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis was conducted, and the denaturation temperature of CPI was 103.4 °C. The surface hydrophobicity of CPI was found to be 932.80. The experiments showed that CPI had high emulsifying capacity, foaming stability, water holding capacity and oil adsorption capacity. Moreover, CPI also had outstanding gel formation capacity since its least gelation concentration of CPI was only 8%. All these results implied that CPI could be a nutritional protein resource and functional ingredient in the food industry., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

By virtue of exclusive nutrient composition and nutritional properties, seed germ flours from both European carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) and South American algarrobo (Prosopis alba and Prosopis nigra) or vinal (Prosopis ruscifolia) have potential as a high nutritional value and health-promoting ingredient for food formulations. In order to define their compositional and functional properties, we investigated the germ protein content of carob compared to the P. alba, P. nigra and P. ruscifolia counterparts, applying proteomics and complementary methods. The mono- and two-dimensional electrophoretic profiles of Prosopis spp. were very similar among one another, while C. siliqua exhibited significant differences. Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy highlighted a dominant β-sheet structural conformation for C. siliqua, suggesting that carob germ flour might more suited than Prosopis germ flour for baking and food technological applications. In contrast, Prosopis spp. contained a more adequate nutritional value than C. siliqua, in terms of essential amino acid complement. Both carob and algarrobo germ flour samples were highly digestible, as demonstrated by in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion, releasing high amounts of free amino acids and only minor proportions of low molecular weight peptides., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The types of food in complementary feeding of infants and young children are important for growth and development. Food protein quality, as measured by the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS), requires the determination of true ileal digestibility of indispensable amino acids (IAAs) in children., Objectives: First, the aim of this study was to measure the true ileal IAA digestibility of 4 (rice, finger millet, mung bean, and hen egg) commonly consumed complementary foods in children aged <2 y using the dual-isotope tracer method. Second, we calculated the DIAAS of complementary feeding diets and their relation to stunting in a representative Indian rural population., Design: Rice, finger millet, and mung bean were intrinsically labeled with deuterium oxide (2H2O), whereas egg was labeled through oral dosing of hens with a uniformly 2H-labeled amino acid mixture. True ileal IAA digestibility was determined by the dual-isotope tracer technique. The DIAAS of complementary food protein was calculated in children aged 1-3 y from a nationally representative survey to evaluate its relation with stunting., Results: True ileal IAA digestibility was lowest in mung bean (65.2% ± 7.1%), followed by finger millet (68.4 %± 5.3%) and rice (78.5% ± 3.5%), and was highest for egg (87.4% ± 4.0%). There was a significant inverse correlation of complementary food DIAAS with stunting in survey data (r = -0.66, P = 0.044). The addition of egg or milk to nationally representative complementary diets theoretically improved the DIAAS from 80 to 100., Conclusions: The true ileal IAA digestibility of 4 foods commonly consumed in complementary diets showed that the DIAAS was associated with stunting and reinforces the importance of including animal source food (ASF) in diets to improve growth. This trial was registered at http://ctri.nic.in/clinicaltrials/login.php as CTRI/2017/02/007921., (Copyright © American Society for Nutrition 2019.)

Background: Tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) is phytotoxic and therefore impacts global food security. In the present study yield responses and kernel quality traits of two maize cultivars [DHM117: normal maize (NM)] and [HQPM1: quality protein maize (QPM)] are investigated. Cultivars were exposed to two doses of elevated O 3 , namely NFC + 15 and NFC + 30 ppb O 3 above ambient level (NFC, non-filtered chambers) while filtered chambers served as control., Results: Test weight (thousand kernel weight), weight of kernels per square meter and kernel starch content reduced more in NM than QPM due to elevated O 3 exposure. Total soluble and reducing sugars increased in both the cultivars being more in NM. Though, endosperm protein showed comparatively more increase in QPM than NM, decline in essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine was higher in QPM. Majority of nutrient elements increased after O 3 treatment, while reductions in oil content as well as saturated fatty acids were observed in both test cultivars. Of the two essential fatty acids, omega 3 fatty acid reduced while omega 6 fatty acid contents increased in QPM. Oil became more unsaturated (increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids) upon O 3 exposure, thus increasing its reactivity and hence became more prone to auto-oxidation., Conclusions: Elevated O 3 caused losses in yield of maize cultivars and NM showed higher sensitivity than QPM. Kernel quality analysis revealed significant changes in nutritional parameters. Carbohydrate content reduced more in NM, while essential amino acids and saturated fatty acids showed more decline in QPM. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.)

A prospective, randomised, 6-month feeding trial was performed in 28 adult cats with International Renal Interest Society (IRIS) stage 1 and 2 chronic kidney disease (CKD). All cats were assigned to either a control food: Royal Canin Renal Support A Feline, dry or a test food: Hill's Prescription Diet k/d Feline with chicken, dry. Food intake was recorded daily; body weight weekly; and serum, urine, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and body condition assessments were performed at 0, 1, 3 and 6 months. Twenty cats (9 control, 11 test group) completed the study according to protocol. Cats consuming control food had significant loss of body weight (n=14; mean, -13.0 per cent, P<0.0001) and lean body mass (LBM; mean, -11.1 per cent, P<0.0001) over the 6-month feeding period, whereas cats consuming test food had a significant increase in body weight (n=14; mean, 5.8 per cent, P=0.003) and no change in LBM (P=0.42). Cats consumed 23 per cent more calories (P=0.05) when fed test food (mean, 207.1 kcal/day) compared with cats fed control food (mean, 168.0 kcal/day). Serum creatinine increased at a faster rate (P=0.0004) in cats consuming control food compared with cats consuming test food. Cats consuming test food had increased caloric and essential amino acid intake, increased body weight, stable biomarkers of kidney function and maintained LBM compared with cats consuming control food., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© British Veterinary Association 2018. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. Published by BMJ.)

The amino acid composition table (AACT) plays a pivotal role in examining the association between dietary amino acid intake and physical conditions. The updated version, AACT 2015, has been markedly expanded; however, most additions are not based on analytical values. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that protein contents be calculated as the sum of amino acid residues (PROTCAA). However, due to the lack of a validated AACT, protein content calculated as reference nitrogen multiplied by a nitrogen to protein conversion factor (PROTRN) is still commonly used. In this study, validity of the estimated dietary amino acid values via the AACT 2015 was examined by comparing differences between the estimated and analytical values, for 14 consecutive days' meals provided in an elder care facility. There were no major differences between the analytical and estimated values over the 14 d; however, noticeable daily differences sometimes emerged. These results indicate that the AACT 2015 may contain accidental errors, but allows the estimation of habitual amino acid intake. In the near future, PROTCAA will become the international standard. It will be necessary to convert PROTRN values to PROTCAA to refer to past reports and data; we have determined a correction factor (0.896) for this conversion.

The postprandial rise in essential amino acid (EAA) concentrations modulates the increase in muscle protein synthesis rates after protein ingestion. The EAA content and AA composition of the dietary protein source contribute to the differential muscle protein synthetic response to the ingestion of different proteins. Lower EAA contents and specific lack of sufficient leucine, lysine, and/or methionine may be responsible for the lower anabolic capacity of plant-based compared with animal-based proteins. We compared EAA contents and AA composition of a large selection of plant-based protein sources with animal-based proteins and human skeletal muscle protein. AA composition of oat, lupin, wheat, hemp, microalgae, soy, brown rice, pea, corn, potato, milk, whey, caseinate, casein, egg, and human skeletal muscle protein were assessed using UPLC-MS/MS. EAA contents of plant-based protein isolates such as oat (21%), lupin (21%), and wheat (22%) were lower than animal-based proteins (whey 43%, milk 39%, casein 34%, and egg 32%) and muscle protein (38%). AA profiles largely differed among plant-based proteins with leucine contents ranging from 5.1% for hemp to 13.5% for corn protein, compared to 9.0% for milk, 7.0% for egg, and 7.6% for muscle protein. Methionine and lysine were typically lower in plant-based proteins (1.0 ± 0.3 and 3.6 ± 0.6%) compared with animal-based proteins (2.5 ± 0.1 and 7.0 ± 0.6%) and muscle protein (2.0 and 7.8%, respectively). In conclusion, there are large differences in EAA contents and AA composition between various plant-based protein isolates. Combinations of various plant-based protein isolates or blends of animal and plant-based proteins can provide protein characteristics that closely reflect the typical characteristics of animal-based proteins.

Amino acids (AAs) are defined as organic compounds containing both amino and acid groups (1). Proteinogenic AAs are AAs that serve as substrates for protein synthesis in animal cells, and occur naturally as L-AAs except for glycine. Free AAs (those AAs that are not constituents of peptides or polymers) in physiologic fluid exist primarily in an L-isoform, but some of them may be present in a D-isoform. Based on his findings in 1912 that adult dogs exhibited a negative nitrogen balance when fed a tryptophan-free diet but maintained a positive nitrogen balance when fed a proline-free diet, Abderhalden (2) classified AAs as nutritionally essential (EAAs) or nonessential (NEAAs). Beginning in 1924, WC Rose and coworkers (3) published a series of landmark papers on AA nutrition and metabolism in rats and humans that further defined AAs as EAAs or NEAAs based on nitrogen balance or growth. We published an essay on NEAAs in 2017 (4), and EAAs are the focus of the present article.

Nuts-enriched diets were shown to bear beneficial effects for human's health. Among nuts, hazelnut plays a major role in human nutrition and health because of its unique fatty acid composition (predominantly MUFA), fat soluble bioactives (tocopherols and phytosterols), vitamins (vitamin E), essential minerals (selenium), essential amino acids, antioxidant phenolics (caffeic acid), dietary fiber (soluble form), and bioactive phtytochemicals. The current study was designed to explore the cellular effects of two particular hazelnut strains (Ordu and Tonda).Four hazelnut oils were obtained from 2 common strains (Ordu hazelnut oil, Ordu cuticle oil, Tonda "gentile" hazelnut oil, Tonda "gentile" cuticle oil). The metabolic and nutritional effects of the four hazelnut oils were assessed using an in vitro model of mouse myoblasts, identifying the intracellular mechanisms involved in muscle differentiation and in the modulation of specific muscle genes.We demonstrated that hazelnut oils induced morphological changes in neo-formed myotubes increasing myotubes size. In particular, the diversified effects of the hazelnuts and cuticle oils on muscle fibres shape (on length and diameter respectively) determine a diversified pattern of action on elongation or hypertrophy of the muscle fibres. Furthermore, hazelnut oils regulate different pathways associated with myoblasts growth and development, stimulate signal transduction, and activate cell commitment and differentiation. The present results provide evidence that hazelnut oils may affect skeletal muscle growth and differentiation, constituting the proof of principle for the future development of novel foods and integrators.

Background: Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal is a useful but underutilised tropical tree of the Annona- ceae or custard apple family of flowering plants which is rich in proteins. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of thermal processing on the protein quality of Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal seeds., Methods: Raw, boiled (10, 20, 30 min) and roasted (10, 20, 30 min) Monodora myristica seeds were defatted, and the effect of heat treatment on their crude protein, amino acid composition/concen- tration and protein quality parameters was investigated., Results: The results showed that crude protein was significantly reduced by heat treatment and ranged between 19.92&ndash;23.32%. Essential amino acids of the samples ranged from 26.34&ndash;34.06%. Glutamic acid (14.58 g/100 g), aspartic acid (9.18 g/100 g), leucine (7.76 g/100 g) and lysine (6.91 g/100 g) were the most predominant amino acids, while methionine + cysteine was the first limiting amino acid. There were some increases in some of the amino acids in the roasted samples. For instance, lysine was increased by 3.3% and arginine by 6.9%. The predicted protein efficiency ratio at all levels of processing was higher than 1.50, below which a protein is taken to be of poor quality. The calculated biological value ranged from 70.7% to 77.7%. Based on The Provisional Amino Acid (Egg) Scoring Pattern, the percentage adequacy of most essential amino acids in the samples was high., Conclusions: Despite the decrease in most amino acid contents by cooking, the plant food has the potential to provide high quality protein which can be exploited to enhance protein quality in human nutrition and performance in sports.

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked via α-peptide bonds. They can be represented as primary, secondary, tertiary, and even quaternary structures, but from a nutritional viewpoint only the primary (amino acid) sequence is of interest. Similarly, although there are many compounds in the body that can be chemically defined as amino acids, we are only concerned with the 20 canonical amino acids encoded in DNA, plus 5 others-ornithine, citrulline, γ-aminobutyrate, β-alanine, and taurine-that play quantitatively important roles in the body. We consume proteins, which are digested in the gastrointestinal tract, absorbed as small peptides (di- and tripeptides) and free amino acids, and then used for the resynthesis of proteins in our cells. Additionally, some amino acids are also used for the synthesis of specific (nonprotein) products, such as nitric oxide, polyamines, creatine, glutathione, nucleotides, glucosamine, hormones, neurotransmitters, and other factors. Again, such functions are not quantitatively important for most amino acids, and the bulk of amino acid metabolism is directly related to protein turnover (synthesis and degradation). For an individual in nitrogen balance, an amount of protein equal to that of the daily protein (nitrogen) intake is degraded each day with the nitrogen being excreted as urea and ammonia (with limited amounts of creatinine and uric acid). The carbon skeletons of the amino acids degraded to urea and ammonia are recovered through gluconeogenesis or ketone synthesis, or oxidized to carbon dioxide. Of the 20 amino acids present in proteins, 9 are considered nutritionally indispensable (essential) in adult humans because the body is not able to synthesize their carbon skeletons. These 9 amino acids are leucine, valine, isoleucine, histidine, lysine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine. In addition, 2 others are made from their indispensable precursors: cysteine from methionine, and tyrosine from phenylalanine. Although arginine is needed in neonates, it appears that adults, with the possible exceptions of pregnancy in females and spermatogenesis in males, can synthesize sufficient arginine to maintain a nitrogen balance. The others, glutamate, glutamine, aspartate, asparagine, serine, glycine, proline, and alanine, can all be synthesized from glucose and a suitable nitrogen source. Under some conditions, glutamine, glutamate, glycine, proline, and arginine may be considered as conditionally indispensable, meaning that the body is not capable of synthesizing them in sufficient quantities for a specific physiologic or pathologic condition (1). Thus, any discussion of dietary protein must consider not only quantity but also quality (ratio of indispensable amino acids).

Background: Ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) is used to treat children suffering from severe acute malnutrition (SAM). Standard RUTF uses milk as the primary protein source, which makes the product expensive, and given the high worldwide SAM burden, having a less expensive effective alternative is a public health priority., Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate whether newly developed amino acid-enriched milk-free RUTF (FSMS-RUTF) or amino acid-enriched low-milk RUTF (MSMS-RUTF) treatment could replenish plasma amino acids to levels comparable to those following standard peanut-milk RUTF (PM-RUTF) treatment and to improve understanding of the effects of treatment on anthropometric measurements. A secondary analysis was performed to test the noninferiority hypothesis of plasma essential amino acid (EAA) levels., Methods: Plasma EAA levels were measured in a nonblinded, 3-arm, parallel-group simple randomized controlled trial conducted in Malawi to examine the efficacy of FSMS-RUTF, MSMS-RUTF and PM-RUTF in the treatment of SAM in 2 groups of children aged 6-23 and 24-59 months (mo). Sample size calculations were performed based on the previous our study. A noninferiority margin was set at -25% of the PM-RUTF arm at discharge., Results: The relative values of the differences (95% CI) in plasma EAA levels between PM-RUTF treatment and FSMS-RUTF and MSMS-RUTF treatments at discharge were -7.9% (-18.6, 2.8) and 9.8% (0.2, 19.5), respectively, in children aged 6-23 mo, while in those aged 24-59 mo, the difference values were 17.8% (1.6, 34.1) and 13.6% (-2.8, 29.9), respectively., Conclusion: At discharge, the plasma EAA concentrations in 6-59-mo-old SAM children treated with FSMS-RUTF and MSMS-RUTF were not less than those of children treated with PM-RUTF. These findings indicate that treatment with either of the 3 RUTFs was associated with adequate protein synthesis and that all the formulations provided sufficient functional metabolites of plasma amino acids to support nutritional recovery from SAM., Competing Interests: I have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: WS, CF, KM, HM are Ajinomoto Co. Inc., employees and SC, PA, CB are employees of Valid Nutrition. SC is the unpaid director of Valid Nutrition and a director of Valid International Ltd. Valid International Ltd. is the sister company of Valid Nutrition, and PB, KS, CB are Valid International employees. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. All other authors had no conflict of interest.

Bresaola made from New Zealand mutton and lamb, were compared in quality attributes. Mutton bresaola had slightly lower protein and higher moisture contents, and similar amount of intramuscular fat and instrumental colour compared to that of the lamb. 36 and 80 unique endogenous peptides were observed in mutton and lamb, respectively. Proteolysis during dry-curing was affected by the age of the animal and has resulted in softer and easier to chew textural properties to the mutton bresaola. Significantly higher amounts of total free amino acids and higher proportion of essential amino acids were detected in the mutton bresaola from digestion simulation compared to that from lamb. Expedited proteolysis measured in the form of the release of free amino acids was positively related to the animal age. Overall, bresaola from mutton had more favourable characteristics compared to that of the lamb., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The goal of this work was to analyze nutritional value of various minimally processed commercial products of plant protein sources such as faba bean (Vicia faba), lupin (Lupinus angustifolius), rapeseed press cake (Brassica rapa/napus subsp. Oleifera), flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum), oil hemp seed (Cannabis sativa), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Basic composition and various nutritional components like amino acids, sugars, minerals, and dietary fiber were determined. Nearly all the samples studied could be considered as good sources of essential amino acids, minerals and dietary fiber. The highest content of crude protein (over 30 g/100 g DW) was found in faba bean, blue lupin and rapeseed press cake. The total amount of essential amino acids (EAA) ranged from 25.8 g/16 g N in oil hemp hulls to 41.5 g/16 g N in pearled quinoa. All the samples studied have a nutritionally favorable composition with significant health benefit potential. Processing (dehulling or pearling) affected greatly to the contents of analyzed nutrients.

α-Lactalbumin is a whey protein that constitutes approximately 22% of the proteins in human milk and approximately 3.5% of those in bovine milk. Within the mammary gland, α-lactalbumin plays a central role in milk production as part of the lactose synthase complex required for lactose formation, which drives milk volume. It is an important source of bioactive peptides and essential amino acids, including tryptophan, lysine, branched-chain amino acids, and sulfur-containing amino acids, all of which are crucial for infant nutrition. α-Lactalbumin contributes to infant development, and the commercial availability of α-lactalbumin allows infant formulas to be reformulated to have a reduced protein content. Likewise, because of its physical characteristics, which include water solubility and heat stability, α-lactalbumin has the potential to be added to food products as a supplemental protein. It also has potential as a nutritional supplement to support neurological function and sleep in adults, owing to its unique tryptophan content. Other components of α-lactalbumin that may have usefulness in nutritional supplements include the branched-chain amino acid leucine, which promotes protein accretion in skeletal muscle, and bioactive peptides, which possess prebiotic and antibacterial properties. This review describes the characteristics of α-lactalbumin and examines the potential applications of α-lactalbumin for human health.

The hypothesis that pigs placed on diets with reduced indispensable amino acid (AA) content attempts to offset the reduction in the nutrient density with increased feed intake was tested. In the experiment, feeds with a high or a low AA content were administrated to pigs fed ad-libitum or restrictively according to a 2 × 2 factorial design. Ninety-six barrows were housed in 8 pens (12 pigs/pen) equipped with automatic feeders. Within pen, and from 47 body weight (BW) onwards, 6 pigs were fed ad libitum. The others pigs were allowed to consume, as a maximum, the feed amounts indicated by the breeding company feeding plane to optimize the feed efficiency. In early (86-118 kg BW) and late (118-145 kg BW) finishing, the pigs of 4 pens received feeds with high indispensable AA contents (8.1 and 7.5 g lysine/kg in the two periods, respectively). The other pigs received feeds with reduced indispensable AA contents (lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan) by 9 and 18% in early and late finishing, respectively. Body lipid and protein (Pr) retentions were estimated from BW and back-fat depth measures recorded at the beginning and the end of each period. Nitrogen excretion was estimated as actual intake minus estimated N-retention (Pr/6.25). Pigs were slaughtered at 144 kg BW. Restricted feeding decreased feed intake (-7%), daily gain (-5%), carcass weight (-2.6%) and back-fat depth (-8.0%) but increased gain:feed ratio (+2%). The AA restriction increased feed intake (+5.9%), carcass weight (+4.9%) and intramuscular fat (+17.6%), and reduced carcass weight variation (-36%), with no effects on the feed efficiency and the estimated Pr (142 g/d). N excreted was reduced by feed (-9%) and dietary AA (-15%) restrictions. Irrespectively of the feeding level, the pigs responded to a reduction of the dietary essential AA content by increasing their feed intake.

Research on the use of various parts of the Moringa oleifera Lam. plant (M. oleifera) as a nutritional and neutraceutical resource for human and animal diets has increased in recent years, emanating from the widespread use of the plant in traditional cuisines and medicinal remedies in several regions of the world. Analytical studies have identified M. oleifera as an important source of essential nutrients; rich in protein, essential amino acids, minerals, and vitamins, with a relatively low amount of antinutrients. It is also a rich source of other bio active compounds including flavonoids and phenolic compounds; with several studies detailing demonstrated in vitro and in vivo functional properties, most substantially, antioxidant activities. Moringa oleifera consumption has been reported to improve the health status, feed conversion efficiency, growth performance and product quality of several livestock species, at dietary inclusion rates generally not exceeding 5% of total dry matter intake. Fortification of processed foods with M. oleifera has been reported to increase nutritional value, some organoleptic properties, oxidative stability and product shelf life; with a notable need for further analytical and consumer studies in the development of these products. There is a paucity of literature detailing clinical studies, nutrient bioavailability, toxicity and the mode of action of the bioactive compounds to which the health claims associated with M. oleifera consumption are attributed. Many of these are not yet fully understood; therefore more research in these areas is required in order to fully utilize the potential benefits of this plant in human and livestock nutrition., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The use of protein hydrolyzates in food and feed ingredients is a growing area of interest. The present study was conducted aiming to determine the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) and to evaluate protein quality of porcine and bovine hydrolyzates. The SID values were determined in pigs and these values were used to calculate digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) values., Results: The SID of crude protein of hydrolyzates of porcine plasma, bovine muscle, bovine collagen, porcine heart and porcine muscle was 0.81, 0.84, 0.79, 0.79 and 0.91, respectively. Based on the DIAAS, hydrolyzates of porcine plasma and porcine heart (DIAAS = 87 and 76) are considered as good quality protein sources for younger children. For older children, adolescents and adults, the hydrolyzates of bovine muscle and porcine heart (DIAAS = 81 and 87) are considered as good quality protein sources and the hydrolyzate of porcine plasma (DIAAS = 102) is considered as a high quality protein source., Conclusion: DIAAS values indicate that the porcine and bovine hydrolyzates tested in the present study have low and medium to high protein values and also that the protein products can be included in human nutrition. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Background: Oat protein concentrate is often used in human food, but the quality of this protein has not been characterized. Therefore, the objectives of this experiment were to determine the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA) in oat protein concentrate and to determine differences in protein quality estimates between the protein digestibility-corrected AA score (PDCAAS) and the digestible indispensable AA score (DIAAS) when using growing pigs for both measurements., Results: For infants, the most limiting AA in oat protein concentrate was the aromatic AA (Phe + Tyr), for which the DIAAS value was 41 and the PDCAAS was 43. For children (6 months to 3 years) and children older than 3 years, the most limiting AA in oat protein concentrate was Lys, for which the DIAAS was 56 and 67 and the PDCAAS was 58 and 69, respectively., Conclusion: The DIAAS value for oat protein concentrate was close to the calculated value for PDCAAS, but below the recommended intake for protein. Therefore, to satisfy the daily human AA requirement, oat protein needs to be complemented by other proteins of higher quality and specifically with greater lysine concentrations. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Consumption of sufficient dietary protein is fundamental to muscle mass maintenance and overall health. Conventional animal-based protein sources such as meat (ie, beef, pork, lamb), poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy are generally considered high-quality sources of dietary protein because they meet all of the indispensable amino-acid requirements for humans and are highly digestible. However, the production of sufficient amounts of conventional animal-based protein to meet future global food demands represents a challenge. Edible insects have recently been proposed as an alternative source of dietary protein that may be produced on a more viable and sustainable commercial scale and, as such, may contribute to ensuring global food security. This review evaluates the protein content, amino-acid composition, and digestibility of edible insects and considers their proposed quality and potential as an alternative protein source for human consumption., (© The Author(s) 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Life Sciences Institute. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The study aimed to determine the effects of reduction of dietary crude protein (CP) level with balanced essential amino acids (EAA) on intestinal bacteria and their metabolites of growing pigs. Forty pigs (initial BW 13.50 ± 0.50 kg, 45 ± 2 days of age) were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments containing CP levels at 20.00% (normal crude protein, NP); 17.16% (medium crude protein, MP); 15.30% (low crude protein, LP); and 13.90% (extremely low crude protein, ELP), respectively. Crystalline AAs were added to meet the EAA requirement of pigs. After 4-week feeding, eight pigs per treatment (n = 8) were randomly selected and slaughtered for sampling of ileal, cecal, and colonic digesta and mucosa. Pigs with moderately reduced CP level had increased bacterial diversity, with the Shannon diversity indices for the colon digesta in the LP group and mucosa in the MP and LP groups significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those in the NP and ELP groups. As the CP level reduces, the Bifidobacterium population were linearly decreased (P < 0.05) both in ileum, cecum, and colon, and the ELP group had the lowest Bifidobacterium population in the cecum and colon, with its value significantly lower than NP and MP groups (P < 0.05). However, the ELP group had the highest population of Escherichia coli in the colon, with its value significantly higher than the LP group (P < 0.05). For bacterial metabolites, as CP level decreased, total short-chain fatty acid (T-SCFA), acetate, and butyrate were linearly increased (linear, P < 0.05) in the ileum, while all SCFAs except formate in the cecum and T-SCFA and acetate in the colon, were linearly decreased (P < 0.05). Reducing CP level led to a linear decrease of microbial crude protein (MCP) in the ileum (P < 0.05) and ammonia in all intestine segments (P < 0.05). The spermidine in cecum and total amines, cadaverine, methylamine, and spermidine in colon were shown a quadratic change (P < 0.05) as dietary CP decreases, with the highest concentration in LP group. These findings suggest that moderate reduction of dietary CP level may benefit large intestinal bacterial community and its fermentation, which was negatively affected by extremely low CP diet.

We have prepared a review of the physical-chemical composition and the functional and anti-nutritional properties of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). It is a plant of the Chenopodiaceae family, originally from the Andean regions, adaptable to different types of soils and climatic conditions. Its composition has attracted the attention of scientific community for its high nutritional value, being rich in proteins, lipids, fibers, vitamins, and minerals, with an extraordinary balance of essential amino acids. It is also gluten-free, a characteristic that enables its use by celiac patients. In spite of all these attributes, quinoa is not widely used by consumers due to the high cost of imported grain and little knowledge of its benefits. More studies are required to increase knowledge about this "pseudo-cereal" to demonstrate its functional and nutritional benefits and to study its anti-nutritional effects, since it presents high commercial value and excellent nutritional quality.

Zn deficiency is currently listed as a major risk factor for human health. Recently, a complimentary solution to mineral malnutrition termed 'biofortification' has been proposed. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible effects of a Zn-biofortification program on Zn levels, amino acidic profile and the phytochemicals content in an edible leafy vegetable, such as Brassica oleracea cv. Bronco. Our results indicate that supplementation of 80-100μM Zn is optimal for maintaining the normal growth of plants and to promote the major Zn concentration in the edible part of B. oleracea. Any further increase of Zn supply induced an accumulation of total amino acids, and increased the enzymatic activities involved in sulfur assimilation and synthesis of phenols, finally resulting in a foliar accumulation of glucosinolates and phenolic compounds. Thus, it could be proposed that the growth of B. oleracea under 80-100μM Zn may increase the intake of this micronutrient and other beneficial compunds for the human health., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)