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Dendritic cells (DCs) phagocytose large particles like bacteria at sites of infection and progressively degrade them within maturing phagosomes. Phagosomes in DCs are also signaling platforms for pattern recognition receptors, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and sites for assembly of cargo-derived peptides with major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) molecules. Although TLR signaling from phagosomes stimulates presentation of phagocytosed antigens, the mechanisms underlying this enhancement and the cell surface delivery of MHC-II–peptide complexes from phagosomes are not known. We show that in DCs, maturing phagosomes extend numerous long tubules several hours after phagocytosis. Tubule formation requires an intact microtubule and actin cytoskeleton and MyD88-dependent phagosomal TLR signaling, but not phagolysosome formation or extensive proteolysis. In contrast to the tubules that emerge from endolysosomes after uptake of soluble ligands and TLR stimulation, the late-onset phagosomal tubules are not essential for delivery of phagosome-derived MHC-II–peptide complexes to the plasma membrane. Rather, tubulation promotes MHC-II presentation by enabling maximal cargo transfer among phagosomes that bear a TLR signature. Our data show that phagosomal tubules in DCs are functionally distinct from those that emerge from lysosomes and are unique adaptations of the phagocytic machinery that facilitate cargo exchange and antigen presentation among TLR-signaling phagosomes.

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TGF-beta 1 is critical for differentiation of epithelial-associated dendritic Langerhans cells (LC). In accordance with the characteristics of in vivo LC, we show that LC obtained from human monocytes in vitro in the presence of TGF-beta 1 1) express almost exclusively intracellular class II Ags, low CD80, and no CD83 and CD86 Ags and 2) down-regulate TNF-RI (p55) and do not produce IL-10 after stimulation, in contrast to dermal dendritic cells and monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Surprisingly, while LC exhibit E-cadherin down-regulation upon exposure to TNF-alpha and IL-1, TGF-beta 1 prevents the final LC maturation in response to TNF-alpha, IL-1, and LPS with respect to Class II CD80, CD86, and CD83 Ag expression, loss of FITC-dextran uptake, production of IL-12, and Ag presentation. In sharp contrast, CD40 ligand cognate signal induces full maturation of LC and is not inhibited by TGF-beta 1. The presence of emigrated immature LCs in human reactive skin-draining lymph nodes provides in vivo evidence that LC migration and final maturation may be differentially regulated. Therefore, due to the effects of TGF-beta 1, inflammatory stimuli may not be sufficient to induce full maturation of LC, thus avoiding potentially harmful immune responses. We conclude that TGF-beta 1 appears to be responsible for both the acquisition of LC phenotype, cytokine production pattern, and prevention of noncognate maturation.

The functional characteristics of CD8+ T cells specific for melanoma antigens (MAs) have often been defined after in vitro culture using nonprofessional antigen-presenting cells. We have examined CD8+ T-cell immunity to MAs and a viral antigen (influenza) in uncultured T cells of healthy donors and melanoma patients using autologous, mature, monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) pulsed with peptide antigens and viral vectors. Antigen-specific IFN-gamma-producing T cells reactive with HLA-A*0201-restricted peptides from four melanoma antigens (MelanA/MART-1, MAGE-3, tyrosinase, and gp100) were detected only at low frequencies (30 per 2 x 10(5) peripheral blood mononuclear cells for each of the MAs) from HLA-A2.1-positive healthy donors (n = 12) and patients with stages III/IV melanoma (n = 8). Detection of MA-specific, but not influenza matrix peptide (Flu-MP)-specific, T cells required a high concentration (10 microg/ml) of the peptide in this assay. Furthermore, these T cells did not recognize endogenously processed antigen on tumor cell lines or cells infected with viral vectors capable of expressing MAs. The use of autologous, mature DCs led to a significant increase in the number of Flu-MP, but not MA-specific, T cells in 16-h ELISPOT assays for both melanoma patients and healthy donors. In 1-week cocultures with DCs pulsed with 10 microg/ml peptide, MelanA/MART-1-specific T cells did not readily proliferate or differentiate into lytic effectors, in contrast to strong influenza-specific lytic responses. Therefore, despite distinct memory responses to influenza antigens, melanoma patients and healthy controls have a paucity of MA-reactive memory T cells, failing to rapidly generate IFN-gamma-secreting lytic effectors in short-term assays, even when stimulated by DCs.

In order to identify possible mechanisms regulating the expression of Fc gamma RII, we have examined the methylation status of the beta Fc gamma R gene in a panel of Fc gamma RII (+) and (-) cells belonging to several different lineages. We used beta 1 cDNA probes, derived from beta Fc gamma R gene transcripts which encode murine Fc gamma RII molecules. We found that all CCGG sequences detected with these probes were methylated in the genomic DNA of the Fc gamma RII-(-) cells. By contrast, two CCGG sites were found to be selectively unmethylated in the DNA of all Fc gamma RII(+) cells tested. These sites could be assigned to the region of the 5' end of the beta Fc gamma R gene. Besides, the treatment of Fc gamma RII(-) thymoma cells BW5147 with 5-azacytidine induced a hypomethylation of the beta Fc gamma R gene concomitantly with the transcription of that gene as seen by Northern blotting and the expression of functional Fc gamma RII. Conversely, the DNA-methylating agent ethyl methanesulfonate completely reversed the phenotype of the 5-azacytidine-treated cells to that of the Fc gamma RII(-) BW5147 parent cells. In ethyl methanesulfonate-treated cells, the beta Fc gamma R gene was remethylated and the corresponding transcript was no more detectable. We conclude that the methylation of a specific 5' segment of the beta Fc gamma R gene regulates the expression of Fc gamma RII in murine T cells, B cells, mast cells, and macrophages, possibly by controlling the gene transcription.