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Diversity in behavior is important for migratory birds in adapting to dynamic environmental and habitat conditions and responding to global change. Migratory behavior can be described by a variety of factors that comprise migration strategies. We characterized variation in migration strategies in American Woodcock (Scolopax minor), a migratory gamebird experiencing long-term population decline, using GPS data from ~300 individuals tracked throughout eastern North America. We classified woodcock migratory movements using a step-length threshold, and calculated characteristics of migration related to distance, path, and stopping events. We then used principal components analysis (PCA) to ordinate variation in migration characteristics along axes that explained different fundamental aspects of migration, and tested effects of body condition, age-sex class, and starting and ending location on PCA results. The PCA did not show evidence for clustering, suggesting a lack of discrete strategies among groups of individuals; rather, woodcock migration strategies existed along continuous gradients driven most heavily by metrics associated with migration distance and duration, departure timing, and stopping behavior. Body condition did not explain variation in migration strategy during the fall or spring, but during spring adult males and young females differed in some characteristics related to migration distance and duration. Starting and ending latitude and longitude, particularly the northernmost point of migration, explained up to 61% of the variation in any one axis of migration strategy. Our results reveal gradients in migration behavior of woodcock, and this variability should increase the resilience of woodcock to future anthropogenic landscape and climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal distributions continue to undergo dramatic shifts in response to environmental change as many ecosystems become altered or transition away from their historic states. The North American Great Plains was historically a vast prairie ecosystem that has been heavily altered into a patchwork of remnant grasslands, industrial agriculture, and tracts invaded by woody vegetation. We studied the habitat selection of a forest-dwelling bird, the American Woodcock (Scolopax minor J. F. Gmelin, 1789), at the westward periphery of the species' range to determine how this species uses resources in this modified landscape. During the migratory and breeding season (March–May), woodcock tracked using GPS transmitters in Nebraska selected areas with higher proportions of young forest and forests with moist soils, exhibiting similar selection to birds occupying core areas of their range in eastern North America. During the summer, woodcock routinely used (46% of diurnal points) irrigated agricultural fields during the day, which was unexpected for a species that is known to summer in forest-dominated ecosystems. Our study provides evidence for flexible and atypical woodcock habitat selection at the edge of their range. These results add to the growing body of evidence pointing to regional shifts in avian community structure and further underscore the threats of agricultural conversion and woody encroachment to the Great Plains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American woodcock (Scolopax minor; woodcock) are monitored, in part, by counts of displaying male woodcock collected via the American Woodcock Singing Ground Survey (SGS), which suggests long‐term, range‐wide declines in woodcock populations. Data from the SGS have been used extensively to develop conservation plans, direct management actions, and understand causes of decline. To avoid bias, the SGS should be timed to avoid spring migration, and the distribution of survey routes should coincide with woodcock breeding distribution. Our objectives for this research were to evaluate SGS timing with the phenology of male woodcock migration, relate the spatial coverage of the SGS to male woodcock breeding distributions, and explore other sources of variation in woodcock migration timing. We marked 133 male woodcock captured throughout eastern North America with global positioning system (GPS) transmitters during 2019–2022, and compared the timing of their spring migration with the spatiotemporal stratification of the SGS. Most woodcock (74%) completed migration prior to the onset of the SGS. In the northernmost SGS zone, a greater percentage of males (34%) continued migration during the survey window; however, the influence of this mismatch is offset because SGS routes were run more frequently during the second half of the window. Young woodcock completing their first spring migration took 8.6 days longer to do so, on average, compared to adults, and so were more likely to migrate during the SGS window. We found little evidence that timing of migration varied among years. Existing SGS routes cover the majority of male woodcock post‐migratory breeding distribution, with 90% of male woodcock establishing final breeding sites within the spatial coverage of the SGS. Our results confirm the SGS includes some migrating males, with the proportion relative to resident breeding males increasing in more northern survey strata. Our data suggests these errors are unlikely to bias trend estimates at large scales (e.g., within woodcock management regions), but there may be potential for bias at more local scales (e.g., state or provincial population indices). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Developing effective monitoring techniques for sensitive wildlife populations is essential for improving conservation outcomes. The American woodcock (Scolopax minor; hereafter woodcock) is an upland migratory game bird traditionally surveyed by documenting displaying males in spring. Surveys of displaying males are limiting in a variety of important ways such as brief detection window and male‐centric observations. Thermal technology may overcome limitations of traditional monitoring techniques by increasing detections of non‐singing woodcock, however, the efficacy of thermal imaging for detecting woodcock remains unknown. To quantify woodcock detection probability using thermal imaging, we deployed and searched for heat‐emitting woodcock mounts along transects within early‐successional habitats in central Pennsylvania during 2020. We deployed 110 woodcock mounts and successfully detected 63 (57.2%). Detection rate declined as a function of increasing vegetation density and distance from transect. Although detection probability of woodcock was imperfect, thermal cameras may provide a solution for researchers aiming to assess presence or density of woodcock when coupled with analytical methods that account for imperfect detection.

How postbreeding habitat quality and body composition of migratory birds carry over to influence fall migration strategies and residency merits consideration when creating cross-seasonal conservation plans, especially in breeding populations that are partial migrants. We assessed the influence of postbreeding habitat quality on departure body composition and fall migration patterns in a southern New England breeding population of American Woodcock (Scolopax minor). Woodcock that overwintered near breeding areas (n = 5) had less fat upon capture in fall and used lower quality habitat during the fall than birds that eventually departed on migration (n = 17). Woodcock that departed earlier were long-distance migrants that had inhabited higher quality landscapes prior to migration, departed with less or similar fat stores, stopped over for shorter periods on migration, and arrived earlier on their more southerly wintering areas. In contrast, woodcock that departed later were short-distance migrants that had inhabited lower quality landscapes prior to migration yet stored similar or more fat upon departure, stopped over for longer periods on migration, and arrived relatively late to their more northerly wintering areas. These differences in migration strategies were evident under the same fall environmental conditions and did not appear related to individuals responding to their own condition as would be expected if they were classic condition-based carry-over effects. As such, the southern New England breeding population of woodcock is best categorized as nonfacultative partial migrants (i.e., includes residents, short-distance migrants, and long-distance migrants) that demonstrate weak connectivity between life stages; such populations are excellent for the study of the costs and benefits of migration. The stopover and wintering areas used by woodcock in the coastal mid-Atlantic states deserve conservation and management attention in order to preserve critical habitat throughout their wintering range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying optimal habitat and predicting species distributions are essential components in developing management priorities for species of concern. In Nova Scotia, Canada, the breeding population of American woodcock (Scolopax minor) has been in decline over the past 50 years, likely in part because of reduced availability of habitat. We aimed to identify regions in Nova Scotia expected to support high numbers of woodcock, and whether monitoring efforts sufficiently capture the distribution of habitat. We generated a species distribution model to identify areas of highest relative predicted abundance and optimal habitat based on 15 years of standardized singing ground survey monitoring conducted along 50 routes and a candidate set of 56 habitat variables representative of composition and configuration at each of 2 ecologically relevant spatial scales (i.e., describing habitat immediately available to displaying males and the broader landscape used by the local breeding population). The species distribution model indicated extensive areas of optimal habitat in the central mainland characterized by moist organic soils, large, irregularly shaped patches of early successional forest, and large patches of open space created by developed, urban areas. We identified additional smaller pockets of habitat throughout the province likely to support relatively high local abundances. Much of the area identified as optimal habitat is not currently surveyed by singing ground survey routes. Expanding survey route coverage into regions identified as potentially optimal habitat could help clarify drivers of population declines. Overall, partnerships with provincial forest managers will be key to ensuring the maintenance of woodcock habitat while balancing the needs of a suite of avian species toward the goal of biodiversity conservation in Nova Scotia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted the first validation of the deuterium dilution method as a nonlethal technique for estimating the body composition of a shorebird during fall staging as birds fatten in preparation for their migration. For this validation, we captured male (n = 12) and female (n = 8) American Woodcock (Scolopax minor) in the fall of 2018 and 2019 in southern New England, USA. We developed predictive models for estimating body composition of woodcock given each bird's body mass and deuterium space, a proxy for total body water space, estimated using the deuterium dilution method. Accuracy and precision of these predictive models were assessed by comparing the model predictions with directly measured body composition. The top models predicted whole-body lean and fat mass with a relative error of 1.37% and 11.26%, respectively. In comparison, conventionally used morphology-based condition indices were poor predictors of fat mass in fall-staging woodcock. We applied this method to accurately estimate body composition dynamics of woodcock during fall staging, a period of fattening in the annual cycle that is pertinent to subsequent migratory movements, phenology, survival, and habitat management for woodcock. This nonlethal technique also has broad applicability to other migratory birds that show substantial changes in body composition as they prepare for key life-history events such as migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To preserve the traditional spring hunting of the Eurasian Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) in Hungary while also assuring its sustainability, a monitoring program was maintained with the coordination of the Hungarian Hunters' National Association. The program's primary goal was to estimate the size of the migrating population in the country based on synchronised census data and track its long-term changes. The program was maintained successfully with national coverage in the last 13 years, and it was based on synchronised roding surveys performed weekly, 12 times each spring. The observers used standardised paper forms to record the number of contacts (Woodcocks seen and/or heard). Hunting of Woodcock between 2010-2021 was only allowed for the monitoring program participants with strict regulation and obligatory sample collection from each bird. The primary purpose of sample collection was to assess the sex- and age structure of the population and to evaluate their trends. According to the results, no significant trend could be observed either in the annual detection rates (successful observations) or the sex- and age composition between 2009 and 2021. The proportion of males was above 75% each year, while the proportion of 2nd year birds and adults was almost identical in the annual hunting bags. The measure of harvesting was low, and it had no significant, detectable impact on the examined population parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American woodcock Scolopax minor (hereafter woodcock) migration ecology is poorly understood, but has implications for population ecology and management, especially related to harvest. To describe woodcock migration patterns and phenology, we captured and equipped 73 woodcock with satellite tracking devices in the Central Management Region (analogous to the Mississippi Flyway) of North America and documented migration paths of 60 individual woodcock and 87 autumn or spring woodcock migrations during 2014-2016. Woodcock migration at the scale of the Central Management Region was more synchronous in spring than in autumn, but unlike most other migratory birds, average duration of autumn migration (31 days) was shorter than duration of spring migration (53 days). This difference in migration duration resulted from woodcock making more close-together migratory stopovers during spring migration, not because woodcock had individual stopovers of longer duration. During autumn migration, the number of days, the number of stopovers, migration end date and net migration displacement were negatively related to initiation date and rate of migration, and the number of stopovers and the net migration displacement were negatively related with migration end date. Spring migration duration, end date, the number of stopovers and net migration displacement were negatively related to migration rate and initiation date was positively related to migration rate, suggesting that woodcock that initiated spring migration later had faster migration rates. Juvenile female woodcock began spring migration later than adult female woodcock. Our results provide a basis for comparing current harvest seasons with presence of migrating woodcock during autumn and provide insight into differential harvest of migratory versus local woodcock on breeding areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract 1. Habitat loss and degradation are contributing to severe declines in many North American bird species. For American woodcock Scolopax minor (‘woodcock’), loss of preferred young forest habitat matrices are generally attributed as the primary drivers of range‐wide population declines in eastern North America, but regional patterns in abundance or habitat availability have not been assessed in Nova Scotia, the northeastern‐most portion of the range. 2. Our objectives were to (a) identify regions of similar trends over the past five decades, (b) evaluate spatiotemporal relationships in the effect of habitat availability on abundance across the province and (c) provide recommendations for woodcock management priorities in Nova Scotia to target local population declines. 3. Using 50 years of standardised surveys and habitat measures, we investigated woodcock population trends and local habitat availability by applying a novel spatially‐explicit model with Integrated Nested Laplace Approximation. 4. Province‐level declines were primarily driven by losses of breeding woodcock in the north and south of the province, while the central region experienced growth. The proportion of area around a survey route comprised of clear‐cut, harvested forest was the most important habitat feature of nine potential explanatory variables to affect abundance, where higher levels of clear‐cut area predicted higher abundance, particularly in the last 15 years (increase from two to 10 birds on average as the amount of clear‐cut area increased from zero to 28%). 5. Historically, habitat for species requiring open areas and regenerating forests would be established through periodic natural disturbance. Today, it is impractical for these processes to occur unimpeded, thus commercial timber harvests and proactive habitat management are necessary to ensure habitat availability. For woodcock in Nova Scotia, partnering with both the local forest products industry and wider national and international habitat management initiatives to provide habitat in the southern and northern regions of the province could be key to improving the population status both locally and ultimately range wide. The temporally and spatially extensive surveys used here provide a remarkably comprehensive avian monitoring dataset. Coupled with modern analytical tools, our study system serves as an example of how long‐term avian survey efforts are capable of informing management regionally to achieve broader conservation targets.

Weather appears to influence collisions of migratory birds with human-built structures including buildings, but formal analyses are lacking. In 2018, as part of a two-year study at 21 buildings in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, we observed a large number of American woodcock Scolopax minor collisions during two early spring snowstorms. We describe these events, analyze associations between weather and woodcock collisions during spring 2018, and compare observations to past studies across the woodcock's range. Most spring 2018 woodcock collisions (11 of 15; 73.3%) occurred in association with the two snowstorms. Analyses indicated collisions were positively associated with maximum and average wind speeds the night before collision surveys, and most collisions occurred with north winds. Collisions also increased with lower cloud base height two nights before surveys. These results support that woodcock collisions were greatly influenced by inclement weather, specifically the coincidence of strong north wind and low clouds. Comparing results to past studies illustrates that building collisions could be a major range-wide source of woodcock mortality, especially in spring migration when mortality is likely additive. Although more research is needed to understand range-wide, population-level effects of woodcock collisions, management to reduce building collisions during migration may benefit woodcock populations. Additional research is needed to clarify effects of weather on bird collisions because management efforts could be refined if collisions of woodcocks and other bird species were forecastable like the weather. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration is a period of high activity and exposure during which risks and energetic demand on individuals may be greater than during nonmigratory periods. Stopover locations can help mitigate these threats by providing supplemental energy en route to the animal's end destination. Effective conservation of migratory species therefore requires an understanding of use of space that provides resources to migratory animals at stopover sites. We conducted a radio-telemetry study of a short-distance migrant, the American Woodcock (Scolopax minor), at an important stopover site, the Cape May Peninsula, New Jersey. Our objectives were to describe land-cover types used by American Woodcock and evaluate home range habitat selection for individuals that stopover during fall migration and those that choose to overwinter. We radio-marked 271 individuals and collected 1,949 locations from these birds (0–21 points individual–1) over 4 yr (2010 to 2013) to inform resource selection functions of land-cover types and other landscape characteristics by this species. We evaluated these relationships at multiple spatial extents for (1) birds known to have ultimately left the peninsula (presumed migrants), and (2) birds known to have remained on the peninsula into the winter (presumed winter residents). We found that migrants selected deciduous wetland forest, agriculture, mixed shrub, coniferous wetland forest, and coniferous shrub, while wintering residents selected deciduous wetland forest, coniferous shrub, and deciduous shrub. We used these results to develop predictive models of potential habitat: 7.80% of the peninsula was predicted to be potential stopover habitat for American Woodcock (95% classification accuracy) and 4.96% of the peninsula was predicted to be potential wintering habitat (85% classification accuracy). Our study is the first to report habitat relationships for migratory American Woodcock in the coastal U.S. and provides important spatial tools for local and regional managers to support migratory and winter resident woodcock populations into the future. LAY SUMMARY Stopover sites provide habitat for migratory animals to rest and refuel before continuing migration, making these areas important for species' conservation. We used radio-telemetry to assess American Woodcock stopover and wintering habitat selection on the Cape May Peninsula, New Jersey. Short-term migrants used a greater variety of land-covers than winter residents, although both selected deciduous wetland forest and sites in close proximity to fields. Less than 10% of the Cape May Peninsula provides stopover or wintering habitat for American Woodcock, highlighting the importance of conserving these important but potentially limited resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Umbrella species management offers a potential solution to the financial and logistical challenges of managing for the many declining species in early-successional forests, a habitat that is also critical for many mature and young forest songbird species during the post-fledging and post-breeding period. We investigated the movements of adult Eastern Towhees (Pipilo erythrophthalmus) during the post-fledging period in 4 km2 landscapes managed for American Woodcock (Scolopax minor), a popular umbrella species candidate for young forest management. Home range size (mean = 2.8 ha, SE 0.33) did not differ during the post-fledging period between adult towhees inhabiting landscapes designated as high-likelihood (HL) or low-likelihood (LL) of woodcock use. Adults moved distances of ∼37–47 m per day during the first 3 weeks of the post-fledging period and this did not differ between the 2 landscapes. In contrast, once their young became independent, adults moved longer distances in HL compared to LL landscapes (49.5 m [SE 2.9] and 36.7 m [SE 3.6], respectively) and these distances increased with home range size and patch size. Landscape features within 100 m of the towhee home range best explained variation in towhee movement distance. Young forest habitat was also the predominant forest type used by adult towhees caring for fledglings throughout the post-fledging period. These results suggest that early successional forest management for woodcock can provide effective breeding habitat for towhees, but likely at a smaller spatial scale than typically managed for woodcock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American woodcock (Scolopax minor; woodcock) migratory connectivity (i.e., association between breeding and wintering areas) is largely unknown, even though current woodcock management is predicated on such associations. Woodcock are currently managed in the Eastern and Central management regions in the United States with the boundary between management regions analogous to the boundary between the Atlantic and Mississippi flyways, based largely on analysis of band returns from hunters. Factors during migration influence survival and fitness, and existing data derived from banding and very high frequency telemetry provide only coarse‐scale information to assess factors influencing woodcock migratory movement patterns and behavior. To assess whether current management‐region boundaries correspond with woodcock migratory connectivity in the Central Management Region and to describe migration patterns with higher resolution than has been previously possible, we deployed satellite transmitters on 73 woodcock (25 adult and 28 juvenile females, and 8 adult and 12 juvenile males) and recorded 87 autumn or spring migration paths from 2014 to 2016. Marked woodcock used 2 primary migrations routes: a Western Route and a Central Route. The Western Route ran north‐south, connecting the breeding and wintering grounds within the Central Management Region. The hourglass‐shaped Central Route connected an area on the wintering grounds reaching from Texas to Florida, to sites throughout northeastern North America in both the Eastern Management Region and Central Management Region and woodcock following this route migrated through the area between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi Alluvial Valley in western Tennessee during autumn and spring. Two of 17 woodcock captured associated with breeding areas in Michigan, Wisconsin, or Minnesota migrated to wintering sites in the Eastern Management Region and 12 marked woodcock captured on wintering areas in Texas and Louisiana migrated to breeding sites in the Eastern Management Region. Woodcock that used the Western Route exhibited high concentrations of stopovers during spring in the Arkansas Ozark Mountains and northern Missouri, and along the Mississippi River on the border between Wisconsin and Minnesota, and autumn concentrations of stopovers in southwestern Iowa, central Missouri, the Arkansas portion of the Ozark Mountains, and around the junction of Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. Woodcock that used the Central Route exhibited high concentrations of stopovers during spring in northern Mississippi through western Tennessee, western Kentucky, and the Missouri Bootheel, and autumn concentrations of stopovers in northern Illinois, southwestern Ohio, and the portions of Kentucky and Tennessee west of the Appalachian Mountains. We suggest that current management of woodcock based on 2 management regions may not be consistent with the apparent lack of strong migratory connectivity we observed. Our results also suggest where management of migration habitat might be most beneficial to woodcock. © 2019 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The American Woodcock Conservation Plan calls for halting and reversing declines of American woodcock (Scolopax minor) populations through creation and management of early successional forest (ESF). Counts of displaying male woodcock along routes of the American woodcock singing‐ground survey (SGS) are used to assess regional population status and trends, and there is a need to assess whether SGS routes represent the region. We assessed whether individual SGS routes (330‐m buffers) in the Boreal‐Hardwood and Prairie‐Hardwood Transitions of Minnesota, USA represented land covers within local landscapes, defined using simulated 10‐minute blocks, and whether the routes, in aggregate, represented land covers of our study region. Our land covers included non‐forest classes, age‐based ESF (≤20 years), and persisting classes for deciduous‐mixed and evergreen forests and woody wetlands. We found that the median value of mean absolute differences (MAD) between percentages for route buffer and block cover classes was 3.78 percentage points. Twenty‐two of 81 (27%) route buffers had MAD values ≥5 percentage points. Within Minnesota, more of these routes (19 of 22) occurred in the Boreal‐Hardwood Transition than in the Prairie‐Hardwood Transition. Relative to local landscapes, route buffers most frequently and strongly under‐represented open water, barren land, evergreen ESF, persisting woody wetlands, and woody wetland ESF and over‐represented developed land and grassland‐pasture. When we compared routes in aggregate to our study region, the magnitude of percentage point differences for individual covers did not exceed 5, except for open water. Given the relatively small differences we observed, we conclude that SGS routes well represent land covers within our study region. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. For most land cover classes, there were only small percentage point differences between singing‐ground survey routes and Minnesota, USA, suggesting the routes representatively sample American woodcock habitat component classes in the state. These results may not be geographically transferable and thus similar route assessments using consistent methods are needed for areas throughout the region covered by the singing‐ground survey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Meat from birds is a rich source of proteins for the human diet. In this framework, Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola L.), a medium–small wading bird hunted as game in many Eurasian countries, is considered one of the best meats for culinary purposes. Since the nutritional composition of Eurasian woodcock meat has not yet been reported, we decided to determine the nutritional profile of S. rusticola meat. RESULTS: Macronutrient components (proteins, lipids and fatty acids) were determined, as well as free and total amino acids, and compared with those of the common pheasant. Eurasian woodcock meat contains high levels of proteins and essential amino acids. The levels of unsaturated fatty acids represent a great contribution to the total lipid amount. Among polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid (C18:2, n‐6) is the major essential fatty acid. Finally, we report the characterization of myoglobin (Mb) from Eurasian woodcock. CONCLUSION: The data revealed that meat from this bird could be a good source of quality raw proteins because of its amino acid composition, and it had a low lipid content. On the other hand, Mb characterization might be of benefit to the meat industry, by providing useful information for the determination of species‐specific differences in meat from birds. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we examined the variation of eight autosomal microsatellite markers, and explored the genetic diversity and the measure of population structuring of Eurasian Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) in Hungary in spring. We tested whether any subpopulations can be identified in our sample, and we also examined whether the individuals that occurred closer to each other in space and in timewere alsomore similar in genetic terms. We analysed samples from 240 free-ranging birds collected during legal hunting from mid-February to the end of April in 2015 from different parts of the country. The Bayesian clustering method andMarkov ChainMonte Carlo simulation were used to infer the most probable number of genetic clusters without a priori definition of populations. The second approach was a discriminant analysis of principal components in order to identify clusters of individuals without population geneticmodels.Additionally,we fitted a general linear model with the genetic distance between samples as the dependent variable, the temporal (days) and the geographical (meters) distances and the interactions of these factors as independent variables.We found high genetic diversity and lowlevel of population structuring in our samples.Moreover, our results did not support the assumptions thatWoodcocks occurring in different places or at different times in Hungary would also belong to different breeding populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to long term declines of American Woodcock ( Scolopax minor) and widespread distribution of environmentally available lead (Pb) throughout their geographic range, it is important to assess if Pb exposure is a potential contributor to these declines. Woodcock are exposed to Pb through various environmental sources and are known to exhibit relatively high bone-Pb concentrations. Absorption of Pb by birds, and woodcock specifically, is not well understood. Some studies show that interactions among calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, and vitamin D levels may play an important role in Pb absorption. Therefore, when future Pb studies are performed for woodcock, and other birds, interactions among these elements should be considered. For example, these interactions are relevant in the acquisition and mobilization of calcium in female birds during egg development and shell calcification. These factors should be considered to understand potential mechanisms of Pb exposure, Pb absorption, and subsequent Pb toxicity to birds in general, and woodcock specifically. This review discusses Pb exposure routes, effects of Pb toxicity, and the distribution of Pb in American woodcock and identifies areas for future research in woodcock and other avian species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT American woodcock ( Scolopax minor) are managed as a Central and an Eastern population in the United States and Canada based on band return data showing little crossover between populations or management regions. The observed proportion of crossover between management regions, however, depends on the criteria used to subset the band return data. We analyzed the amount of crossover between management regions using only band return records that represent complete migrations between the breeding and wintering grounds by using only band return records in which the capture took place during the breeding season and the band recovery took place during the wintering season or vice versa ( n = 224). Additionally, we applied spatial statistics and a clustering algorithm to investigate woodcock migratory connectivity using this subset of migratory woodcock band return records. Using raw counts, 17.9% of records showed crossover between management regions, a higher proportion than the <5% crossover reported in studies that did not use only migratory band returns. Our results showed woodcock from the breeding grounds in the Central Region largely migrate to destinations within the Central Region, whereas woodcock from the breeding grounds in the Eastern Region migrate to destinations across the entire wintering range and mix with individuals from the Central Region. Using the division coefficient, we estimated that 54% of woodcock from the breeding grounds of the Eastern Region migrate to the Central Region wintering grounds. Our result that many woodcock from separate regions of the breeding grounds mix on the wintering grounds has implications for the 2-region basis for woodcock management. Elucidating finer scale movement patterns among regions provides a basis for reassessing the need for separate management regions to ensure optimal conservation and management of the species. © 2017 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Landscape capability (LC) models are a spatial tool with potential applications in conservation planning. We used survey data to validate LC models as predictors of occurrence and abundance at broad and fine scales for American woodcock ( Scolopax minor) and ruffed grouse ( Bonasa umbellus). Landscape capability models were reliable predictors of occurrence but were less indicative of relative abundance at route (11.5-14.6 km) and point scales (0.5-1 km). As predictors of occurrence, LC models had high sensitivity (0.71-0.93) and were accurate (0.71-0.88) and precise (0.88 and 0.92 for woodcock and grouse, respectively). Models did not predict point-scale abundance independent of the ability to predict occurrence of either species. The LC models are useful predictors of patterns of occurrences in the northeastern United States, but they have limited utility as predictors of fine-scale or route-specific abundances. © 2017 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Creation and management of early successional forest (ESF) is needed to halt and reverse declines of bird species dependent on pioneering plant species or young forests. ESF-dependent bird species require specific structural forest classes and are sensitive to forest age (a surrogate for forest structure), patch size, proximity to patch edges, and the juxtaposition of forest age classes. To date, ESF conservation plans have relied on spatially inexplicit data, lacking patch and landscape metrics, to set habitat goals and to track habitat trends. In a previous study, we used Landsat time series stacks and a vegetation-change-tracker algorithm to track forest canopy disturbances and subsequent regrowth from 1990 to 2009 across the Upper Great Lakes Young Forest Initiative region. Based on canopy disturbance histories, we assigned forest age classes to forest classes of the National Land Cover Database of 2011. In the present study, we used this spatial product to assess areas, patch and edge metrics, and land protection statuses of deciduous-mixed forest and woody wetland age classes. We defined ESF using four 5-year-age classes (1–5, 6–10, 11–15, 16–20 years old) and their aggregate (1–20 years old) whereas forest >20 years old was referred to as ‘persisting’. Aggregated across 5-year-age classes, ESF of deciduous-mixed forest covered 3.4% and 0.9% of Bird Conservation Regions (BCR) 12 (Boreal Hardwood Transition) and 23 (Prairie Hardwood Transition), respectively, whereas woody wetland ESF constituted 1.0% and 0.2% of the same BCRs. For both deciduous-mixed forest and woody wetlands, ESF often occurred in patches ⩾1 ha, but most ESF also occurred near patch edges created by adjacencies with persisting forest. Most ESF fell on lands with an unprotected or unknown protection status regardless of forest class. Regionally, ESF covered less area, occurred in smaller patches and nearer to edges, and more often fell on lands of unprotected or unknown protection status in BCR 23 than in BCR 12. Our results advance ESF conservation by providing insight into spatial characteristics that influence habitat quality and by establishing a baseline for habitat management planning and monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on several rare birds in Colorado including the Greater white-fronted goose, the American woodcock, and the Snowy owl.

ABSTRACT To identify factors contributing to the long-term decline of American woodcock, a holistic understanding of range-wide population connectivity throughout the annual cycle is needed. We used band recovery data and isotopic composition of primary (P1) and secondary (S13) feathers to estimate population sources and connectivity among natal, early fall, and winter ranges of hunter-harvested juvenile American woodcock. We used P1 feathers from known-origin pre-fledged woodcock ( n = 43) to create a hydrogen δ2Hf isoscape by regressing δ2Hf against expected growing-season precipitation ( δ2Hp). Modeled δ2Hp values explained 79% of the variance in P1 δ2Hf values, indicating good model fit for estimating woodcock natal origins. However, a poor relationship ( r2 = 0.23) between known-origin, S13 δ2Hf values, and expected δ2Hp values precluded assignment of early fall origins. We applied the δ2Hf isoscape to assign natal origins using P1 feathers from 494 hunter-harvested juvenile woodcock in the United States and Canada during 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 hunting seasons. Overall, 64% of all woodcock origins were assigned to the northernmost (>44°N) portion of both the Central and Eastern Management Regions. In the Eastern Region, assignments were more uniformly distributed along the Atlantic coast, whereas in the Central Region, most woodcock were assigned to origins within and north of the Great Lakes region. We compared our origin assignments to spatial coverage of the annual American woodcock Singing Ground Survey (SGS) and evaluated whether the survey effectively encompasses the entire breeding range. When we removed the inadequately surveyed Softwood shield Bird Conservation Region (BCR) from the northern portion of the SGS area, only 48% of juvenile woodcock originated in areas currently surveyed by the SGS. Of the individuals assigned to the northernmost portions of the breeding range, several were harvested in the southern extent of the wintering range. Based upon this latitudinal winter stratification, we examined whether woodcock employed a leapfrog migration strategy. Using δ2Hf values and band-recovery data, we found some support for this migration strategy hypothesis but not as a singular explanation. The large harvest derivation of individuals from the northernmost portions of the breeding range, and the difference in breeding distributions within each Management Region should be considered in future range-wide conservation and harvest management planning for American woodcock. © 2016 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scolopax minor (American Woodcock) is well-known for its crepuscular foraging, nuptial sky dance, and concealment by both cryptic coloration and immobility. It occasionally engages in a highly conspicuous rocking motion that has been interpreted by some as a strategy for worm-hunting. However, the literature on this behavior, combined with current observations and theory, can instead more plausibly be interpreted as an advertisement of unprofitability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild meat often retains metallic particles originating from the ammunition fired by hunters. Since ammunition are traditionally lead (Pb)-based, the consumption of game meat may entail the ingestion of Pb embedded in tissues. To assess the related risks to human health, information is needed on the number, dimension and spatial distribution of Pb particles embedded in popular quarry species. In this study, we focused on the Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), a medium-sized bird intensively hunted across its range. We X-rayed 59 carcasses of woodcock shot by Italian hunters in Ukraine. To check the ammunition types and evaluate the mean weight of the embedded gunshot, we excised a sample of 62 whole pellets from 20 birds. Ammunition residues were found in 57 of the 59 woodcock (96.6%). Radiographs revealed 215 whole pellets and 125 fragmentation centres in 51 (mean=3.64) and in 48 birds (mean=2.14), respectively. Most fragmentation centres (75.7%) contained tiny particles (<1 mm). The overall estimated Pb load ranged from 45 to 52 mg/100 g wet weight, most of which (84.6%) in edible parts. The number of embedded pellets per unit of body mass (1.21/100 g of body weight) was higher in comparison with other bird species and also with woodcock shot in the UK, presumably owing to the hunting methods adopted by Italian hunters. The quantity and characteristics of ammunition residues we found suggest that game meat consumers are exposed to a relevant Pb assumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vermivora chrysoptera (Golden-winged Warbler) and Scolopax minor (American Woodcock, hereafter, Woodcock) are 2 young-forest-dependent species of eastern North America that are experiencing population declines due to loss of breeding habitat. The goals of our study were to compare avian abundance and habitat similarities and differences in sites used by the 2 species. A portion of our survey plots were manipulated under Woodcock or Golden-winged Warbler habitat prescriptions in managed shrublands, and others were on regenerating timber-harvest sites. In north-central PA, we compared Woodcock abundance in 10-ha experimental plots assigned to one of 3 habitat prescriptions: uncut controls, Woodcock strip plots, and Golden-winged Warbler mosaic plots. We also quantified vegetation characteristics in each 10-ha study plot. Woodcock density was higher in the strip (4.8 males/10 ha) and mosaic (5.1 males/10 ha) plots compared to the uncut reference plots (3.3 males/10 ha). Woodcock density was negatively correlated with sapling cover in the north-central PA study plots. In regenerating timber harvests in northeastern PA, we demonstrated that vegetation characteristics overlap regardless of whether we detected only Woodcock or both species. Mean basal area of harvested stands with only Woodcock (i.e., 11.5 m2/ha) was greater than the mean basal area in stands used by Golden-winged Warbler (8.4 m2/ha). Our results suggest that creation of young forests at the stand level using either the Woodcock or Golden-winged Warbler habitat guidelines has benefits for both species. However, the Golden-winged Warbler is less flexible in the density of herbaceous cover and residual trees it requires. We recommend that in areas where the 2 species coexist, the Golden-winged Warbler guidelines be implemented to benefit both species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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ABSTRACT Declines of early-successional forest across the northeast United States during the past 60 years has caused declines in populations of associated birds and active forest management is necessary to reverse these trends. Land managers often focus on a few target species with hopes that non-target species are also conserved, but the effectiveness of management for so-called umbrella species is seldom verified. We compared bird assemblages at American woodcock ( Scolopax minor) singing grounds and nearby, random forest sites to determine whether habitat management for woodcock benefits non-target bird species. Early-successional forest species were a key component of bird assemblages at singing grounds, but were largely absent from random forest sites. On average, the total number and diversity of birds were ≥1.5 times greater at singing grounds. We also found evidence for broader landscape differences in the number of bird species expected at singing grounds ( n = 48; 95% CI = 41-56) and random forest sites ( n = 34; 95% CI = 28-41). Our results indicate that forest management to support woodcock populations extends some conservation benefits to diverse non-target bird species. Thus, the woodcock may serve as an effective umbrella species, especially for early-successional forest birds, but complementary umbrella species should be considered to aid in the conservation of birds that breed in more mature forest. © 2015 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canaan Valley, a 40-mi2 (104-km2) basin situated about 3200 ft (975 m) above sea level in the mountains of northeastern West Virginia, supports a plant and animal community of largely boreal nature-a relic of the Ice Age. Removal of the original forest and subsequent fires drastically altered Canaan Valley's flora and fauna. This paper summarizes actions by the West Virginia Division of Natural Resources (WV DNR) to research, manage, and restore several wildlife species, most of which are indigenous to Canaan Valley and its environs. Of particular importance was the WV DNR's research of Scolopax minor (American Woodcock), the findings of which have had broad management implications and brought national attention to hunting in Canaan Valley. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canaan Valley contains important habitat for Scolopax minor (American Woodcock) in the mid-Atlantic states, especially in West Virginia. Throughout the eastern United States, however, this species has experienced significant population declines since the US Fish and Wildlife Service began monitoring its populations in 1968. Losses of early successional habitats through urbanization and forest-stand maturation have been identified as probable causes for the decrease in population. During 1995-1997, we sampled American Woodcock presence and measured microhabitat and landscape characteristics in a variety of early successional habitats on plots located in and around Canaan Valley. Habitat characteristics related to soil moisture differentiated sites in and outside of Canaan Valley. Sites used by American Woodcock in Canaan Valley generally occurred in or near shrubby wetlands. To identify long-term changes in quality and quantity of American Woodcock habitat, we also compared current availability of appropriate habitat to similar data collected by researchers in the 1970s. We found that almost all of the sites in Canaan Valley that were originally classified as exceptional were still good American Woodcock habitat. Land development and succession, however, have reduced the quality of habitat. Active management and protection are needed, particularly because Canaan Valley is the only place in West Virginia that consistently offers exceptional American Woodcock habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study on nesting of American woodcocks in Clay County, Florida, during the 2014 nesting season.

An essay is presented on the food that American Woodcocks eat. Topics discussed include the physiological characteristics of the birds, the importance of worms in woodcocks' diet and the ways by which the birds find their food. Also discussed are the factors affecting the food supply of American Woodcocks and the types of probing they do to find worms.