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Socio–environmental synthesis as a research approach contributes to broader sustainability policy and practice by reusing data from disparate disciplines in innovative ways. Synthesizing diverse data sources and types of evidence can help to better conceptualize, investigate and address increasingly complex socio–environmental problems. However, sharing qualitative data for re-use remains uncommon when compared to sharing quantitative data. We argue that qualitative data present untapped opportunities for sustainability science, and discuss practical pathways to facilitate and realize the benefits from sharing and reusing qualitative data. However, these opportunities and benefits are also hindered by practical, ethical and epistemological challenges. To address these challenges and accelerate qualitative data sharing, we outline enabling conditions and suggest actions for researchers, institutions, funders, data repository managers and publishers. Opportunities, challenges and recommended targeted actions to accelerate qualitative data sharing to address complex socio–environmental problems

Data are one of the primary outputs of science. Although certain subdisciplines of biology have pioneered efforts to ensure their long-term preservation and facilitate collaborations, data continue to disappear, owing mostly to technological, regulatory, and ideological hurdles. In this article, we describe the important steps toward proper data management and archiving and provide a critical discussion on the importance of long-term data conservation. We then illustrate the rise in data archiving through the Joint Data Archiving Policy and the Dryad Digital Repository. In particular, we discuss data integration and how the limited availability of large-scale data sets can hinder new discoveries. Finally, we propose solutions to increase the rate of data preservation, for example by generating mechanisms insuring proper data management and archiving, by providing training in data management, and by transforming the traditional role of research institutions and libraries as data generators toward managers and archivers.

The scale and magnitude of complex and pressing environmental issues lend urgency to the need for integrative and reproducible analysis and synthesis, facilitated by data-intensive research approaches. However, the recent pace of technological change has been such that appropriate skills to accomplish data-intensive research are lacking among environmental scientists, who more than ever need greater access to training and mentorship in computational skills. Here, we provide a roadmap for raising data competencies of current and next-generation environmental researchers by describing the concepts and skills needed for effectively engaging with the heterogeneous, distributed, and rapidly growing volumes of available data. We articulate five key skills: (1) data management and processing, (2) analysis, (3) software skills for science, (4) visualization, and (5) communication methods for collaboration and dissemination. We provide an overview of the current suite of training initiatives available to environmental scientists and models for closing the skill-transfer gap.

Environmental research data repositories provide much needed services for data preservation and data dissemination to diverse communities with domain specific or programmatic data needs and standards. Due to independent development these repositories serve their communities well, but were developed with different technologies, data models and using different ontologies. Hence, the effectiveness and efficiency of these services can be vastly improved if repositories work together adhering to a shared community platform that focuses on the implementation of agreed upon standards and best practices for curation and dissemination of data. Such a community platform drives forward the convergence of technologies and practices that will advance cross-domain interoperability. It will also facilitate contributions from investigators through standardized and streamlined workflows and provide increased visibility for the role of data managers and the curation services provided by data repositories, beyond preservation infrastructure. Ten specific suggestions for such standardizations are outlined without any suggestions for priority or technical implementation. Although the recommendations are for repositories to implement, they have been chosen specifically with the data provider/data curator and synthesis scientist in mind.

Effective management is a key component for preparing data to be retained for future long term access, use, and reuse by a broader community. Developing the skills to plan and perform data management tasks is important for individuals and institutions. Teaching data literacy skills may also help to mitigate the impact of data deluge and other effects of being overexposed to and overwhelmed by data. The process of learning how to manage data effectively for the entire research data lifecycle can be complex. There are often multiple stages involved within a lifecycle for managing data, and each stage may require specific knowledge, expertise, and resources. Additionally, although a range of organizations offers data management education and training resources, it can often be difficult to assess how effective the resources are for educating users to meet their data management requirements. In the case of Data Observation Network for Earth (DataONE), DataONE’s extensive collaboration with individuals and organizations has informed the development of multiple educational resources. Through these interactions, DataONE understands that the process of creating and maintaining educational materials that remain responsive to community needs is reliant on careful evaluations. Therefore, the impetus for a comprehensive, customizable Education EVAluation instrument (EEVA) is grounded in the need for tools to assess and improve current and future training and educational resources for research data management. In this paper, the authors outline and provide context for the background and motivations that led to creating EEVA for evaluating the effectiveness of data management educational resources. The paper details the process and results of the current version of EEVA. Finally, the paper highlights the key features, potential uses, and the next steps in order to improve future extensions and revisions of EEVA.

The postdoctoral research phase is intended to allow researchers to further develop and strengthen skills needed to succeed in an academic career (NAS et al. 2000). For example, doctoral programs train students to conduct research and publish papers, but often do not include opportunities to develop professional skills, such as project management, balancing multiple research projects, applying for large grants, managing research teams, teaching, and developing the mentorship skills necessary for future careers both within and outside of academia. Many postdoctoral positions, however, do allow early-career researchers to practice these skills sets while deepening their research skills and expanding their collaboration network. Thus, job candidates that have postdoctoral experience are often viewed as more competitive in the academic market (Nerad 1999). For these reasons, and because the ratio of Ph.D.s to available academic positions is increasing (Schillebeeckx et al. 2013), postdoctoral positions have nearly become a prerequisite for modern careers in ecology. The postdoctoral phase is clearly an important, and potentially exciting, time to develop the skills needed to succeed in an academic career. Yet the uncertainty of advancing successfully to the next career stage Ecology Postdocs in Academia: Primary Concerns and Possible Solutions

This chapter provides guidance on approaches and best practices for communicating and disseminating research findings to technical audiences via scholarly publications such as peer-reviewed journal articles, abstracts, technical reports, books and book chapters. We also discuss approaches for communicating findings to more general audiences via newspaper and magazine articles and highlight best practices for designing effective figures that explain and support the research findings that are presented in scientific and general audience publications. Research findings may also be presented verbally to educate, change perceptions and attitudes, or influence policy and resource management. Key topics include simple steps for giving effective presentations and best practices for designing slide text and graphics, posters and handouts. Websites and social media are increasingly important mechanisms for communicating science. We discuss forms of commonly used social media, identify simple steps for effectively using social media, and highlight ways to track and understand your social media and overall research impact using various metrics and altmetrics.

The need for sound ecological science has escalated alongside the rise of the information age and “big data” across all sectors of society. Big data generally refer to massive volumes of data not readily handled by the usual data tools and practices and present unprecedented opportunities for advancing science and inform- ing resource management through data-intensive approaches. The era of big data need not be propelled only by “big science” – the term used to describe large-scale efforts that have had mixed success in the individual-driven culture of ecology. Collectively, ecologists already have big data to bolster the scientific effort – a large volume of distributed, high-value information – but many simply fail to contribute. We encourage ecologists to join the larger scientific community in global initiatives to address major scientific and societal problems by bringing their distributed data to the table and harnessing its collective power. The scientists who contribute such information will be at the forefront of socially relevant science – but will they be ecologists?

The peer review model is one of the most important tools used in science to assess the relative merit of research. We manipulated a published article to reflect one of the following four author designations: female, male, initial, and no name provided. This article was then reviewed by referees of both genders at various stages of scientific training. Name changing did not influence acceptance rates or quality ratings. Undergraduate referees were less critical than graduate students or postdoctoral researchers, independent of gender. However, female postdoctoral researchers were the most critical referees: Their rejection rates were the highest and quality ratings the lowest, regardless of the author name provided. Contrary to previous reports in the literature, there was no evidence of same-gender preferences. This study strongly suggests that female postgraduate biologists may apply different expectations to peer review. © 2009 by American Institute of Biological Sciences. All rights reserved.

The scope and nature of biological and environmental research are evolving in response to environmental challenges such as global climate change, invasive species and emergent diseases. In particular, scientific studies are increasingly focusing on long-term, broad-scale, and complex questions that require massive amounts of diverse data collected by remote sensing platforms and embedded environmental sensor networks; collaborative, interdisciplinary science teams; and new approaches for managing, preserving, analyzing, and sharing data. Here, we describe the design of DataONE (Data Observation Network for Earth)—a cyberinfrastructure platform developed to support rapid data discovery and access across diverse data centers distributed worldwide and designed to provide scientists with an integrated set of familiar tools that support all elements of the data life cycle (e.g., from planning and acquisition through data integration, analysis and visualization). Ongoing evolution of the DataONE architecture is based on participatory, user-centered design processes including: (1) identification and prioritization of stakeholder communities; (2) developing an understanding of their perceptions, attitudes and user requirements; (3) usability analysis and assessment; and (4) engaging science teams in grand challenge exemplars such as understanding the broad-scale dynamics of bird migration. In combination, the four approaches engage the broad community in providing guidance on infrastructure design and implementation.

An online survey of ecology and evolution editors was conducted to assess the characteristics of journal editors and describe manuscript-handling practices. A total of 450 respondents – representing 155 ecology and evolution journals – participated. The following patterns were detected: (1) there are more male than female editors; (2) the greater the number of manuscripts handled per year by editors, the lower the proportion are rejected without review; and (3) previous review time, scientific status, and seniority of reviewers are factors that editors consider when selecting a reviewer. This research highlights the potential importance of editor characteristics in the peer-review process; we suggest that increased transparency promotes both recognition of the editor population and more equitable reviewing practices.

23Most researchers are interested in submitting their work to the very best possible peer-review journals, usually re -garded as those with high ‘impact factors’. But how does one know whether the quality of one’s work is adequate to compete for the limited page space available within these premium journals? Would a lower-ranking journal be more appropriate? How low? The costs of choosing the ‘wrong’ journal in this case can be substantial: the wasted time and effort – for both authors as well as referees and editors – that results from a series of rejections when an author re -peatedly ‘aims too high’ (Hochberg et al. 2009); and also the loss of deserved recognition when an author ‘aims too low’. It should be possible to minimize these costs to some extent by using a set of core criteria for self-assessment of research quality prior to submission for publication.With empirical research, the obvious place to begin is with the data, where quality is relatively easy to assess based on widely recognized conventional standards for effective methodology, effective statistical analyses, and effective presentation of the data for the reader (e.g. see Moller and Jennions 2002, Murtaugh 2002, 2007). Similarly, in theo -retical research, it is relatively intuitive to assess whether ideas, hypothesis development, and conceptual reasoning are at least plausible, and whether models are structurally logical and computationally correct. Although there is cer-tainly variation, even the lowest ranking journals tend not to publish poor quality data, implausible ideas, or falla-cious models – at least not journals that are likely to stay accredited. Hence, if the data are not good, the model is flawed, or the idea is absurd to the intended audience, there is obviously little point in seeking peer-review pub -lication.Additional criteria, therefore, are often more important in distinguishing relative quality among those studies that have at least some suspected potential for publication. It is these criteria that we address here. For empirical stud -ies, high quality data are of course essential, but not suf -ficient to define high quality

Male structural plumage coloration and UV signals in particular can provide information on individual quality and influence female choice, while melanin-pigmented plumage is largely considered to be important in intrasexual competition. Many avian species demonstrate both types of plumage ornamentation that may convey different information about the signaller's quality or condition in addition to age. We examine rufous and blue plumage ornamentation across multiple body regions in relation to age, condition and reproductive performance in male western bluebirds Sialia mexicana. We demonstrate a strong positive relationship between head plumage brightness and both male age and the mass of the offspring. Older males are in better condition and display a reduced plumage patch on the back while the size of the rufous breast patch increases with increasing condition but not with age. Spectral characters from the wings and rump were not associated with any of the reproductive parameters measured. In conjunction with published evidence showing that females preferentially accept extrapair copulations from older males, these data suggest a need for experimental manipulation of plumage colour in known-aged birds to understand mate choice in this species.

When choosing where to submit their research for publication, most ecologists are concerned with journal impact factor, but they are also concerned with the likelihood that their manuscripts will be accepted. Based on a survey of ecologists, we found different degrees of relative concern for these journal attributes depending on author experience and gender. However, the ability of authors to choose among journals based on these journal attributes is limited: while journal impact factors are published regularly, journal rejection rates are not. We obtained, by permission, rejection rate data for a sample of 60 ecology journals for the year 2004. As expected, journals with higher impact factors also have higher rejection rates, but the ratio of (rejection rate) / (impact factor) increases sharply with decreasing impact factor below 1.76. Journals with impact factors below this value therefore provide relatively low payback in terms of impact against cost as estimated by rejection rate. We discuss alternative possible interpretations of this relationship and alternative criteria that might affect an author's decision about journal choice. Most importantly, our analysis indicates that the ability to make informed choices requires that journals publish their rejection rates annually. PREAMBLE How does an author decide where to submit a paper for publication? This important decision is made routinely throughout the career of a typical researching scientist/academic. The choices made can profoundly affect the trajectory, rate of progress, and status of one's research career. Necessarily, the subject category of the journals under consideration must be concordant with the research topic of the paper. However after this, most authors in the field of ecology at least, are usually still presented with more than one choice of a topically suitable subset of candidate journals. And, when the paper is rejected (an experience that few if any manage to avoid completely), the author is commonly inclined to iteratively select alternative journals.

Nestling begging has the potential to provide parents with honest information about both short- and long-term nutritional needs, yet the importance of previous feeding experience remains largely untested in empirical studies. We examined the effect of two experimental feeding rates on nestling begging in Southern Grey Shrikes Lanius meridionalis using differences in load size to equalize the total volume of food received. There was variation in the pattern of begging behaviour between six pairs of siblings during a hand-feeding trial, although individuals maintained a similar begging intensity throughout a 9-h feeding period. Both treatment groups showed elevated begging responses during a terminal deprivation period, but nestlings fed small food items at frequent intervals demonstrated higher begging responses after a period of deprivation than did siblings fed large food items infrequently. As nestlings fed frequently with small food items had greater levels of undigested protein present in their faeces than birds fed large items infrequently, we suggest experimentally induced variation in digestive efficiency may account for the observed differences in begging behaviour. The possible role of learning, the adaptive significance of trade-offs between feeding rate and digestive efficiency, and a possible conflict of interests between parents and offspring are discussed.

Bias, or any set of factors that influence the general expression of merit, is common in science and is an inevitable by-product of an imperfect but otherwise reasonably objective human pursuit to understand the world we inhabit. In this paper, we explore the conceptual significance of a relatively tractable form of bias, namely publication and dissemination bias. A specific definition is developed, a working model of classification for publication bias is proposed, and an assessment of what we can measure is described. Finally, we offer expectations for ecologists with respect to the significance of bias in the publication process within our discipline. We argue that without explicit consideration of both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of publication bias in ecology, we limit our capacity to fairly assess and best use the science that we as a community produce. © Oikos.

Begging behaviour of nestling birds may involve more than a simple, honest source of information for parents to use in provisioning. Many aspects of begging behaviour relate instead to sibling competition for food items within the nest, and we might expect evidence of adaptive learning and behavioural adjustment in response to experience of the competitive environment. In this study, we consider begging in different locations within the nest as analogous to foraging in different patches, varying in food availability. Using hand-feeding trials, we created zones of differing profitability within an artificial nest by adjusting either the prey size or number of items delivered, and allowed only indirect competition between pairs of southern grey shrike (Lanius meridionalis) nestlings. Nestlings demonstrated the ability to detect differences in zone profitability and position themselves accordingly. By the end of both the prey size and delivery rate trials nestlings had increased the amount of time spent in the high quality zone. Such movement in response to differences in load quality, as well as frequency, demonstrates the ability of nestlings to learn about their environment and to facultatively adjust their begging in order to maximise energetic rewards.

Life history theory predicts phenotypic trade-offs between the number and quality of offspring produced. Intraspecific variation in egg mass is common in birds and increased egg size can have positive effects on offspring fitness. However, evidence of a trade-off with clutch size is limited. We analyzed variation in mass of 5,743 Green-rumped parrotlet (Forpus passerinus) eggs laid over 15 years to evaluate the potential for facultative adjustment of egg mass and factors governing variation. Heavier eggs had an increased probability of both hatching and fledging but egg mass did not affect postfledging recruitment. Offspring egg mass differed between populations and the potential for seasonal adjustment to egg mass may be related to environmental factors such as seed density. Egg mass was moderately heritable (h2 = 0.42) which accounts for some of the individual variation detected, and these results are likely attributable to strong maternal effects. We found an effect of female age on egg mass, but no effects of previous reproductive experience. Finally, egg mass was strongly governed by position within the laying sequence, independent of clutch size, and such adjustment may facilitate brood reduction under some conditions in this highly asynchronous species.

Weinvestigatednestlingsexratiovariationinthegreen-rumpedparrotlet(Forpuspasserinus),asmallneotropicalparrotbreedingin central Venezuela. There are strong theoretical reasons to predict a female-biased sex ratio in this system according to the local resource hypothesis; juvenile males are philopatric and there are high levels of competition between male siblings for access to breeding females. Data were collected from two breeding sites over a 14-year period incorporating 564 broods with a total of 2728 nestlings. The mean percentage of male nestlings across years was 51%. Despite extreme hatching asynchrony in this system and increased survival of earlier hatched offspring, there was no bias in sex allocation associated with egg sequence. Patterns in sex allocation were not associated with clutch size, age, or size of the breeding female or breeding site. The potential for selective resorption of eggs was considered; however, no significant relationship was found between extended laying intervals and the sex of subsequenteggs.Together,theseresultssuggestthatfemaleparrotletsareunabletoregulatethesexratiooftheirclutchatlayingor that facultative manipulation of nestling sex ratio may notconfer afitness benefitto breeders in thesepopulations. Keywords:Forpus passerinus, green-rumped parrotlet, laying interval, local resource competition, sex ratio. [Behav Ecol 15:607–613 (2004)]

Objective: To ensure that resources designed to teach skills and best practices for scientific research data sharing and management are useful, the maintainers of those materials need to evaluate and update them to ensure their accuracy, currency, and quality. This paper advances the use and process of outside peer review for community resources in addressing ongoing accuracy, quality, and currency issues. It further describes the next step of moving the updated materials to an online collaborative community platform for future iterative review in order to build upon mechanisms for open science, ongoing iteration, participation, and transparent community engagement. Setting: Research data management resources were developed in support of the DataONE (Data Observation Network for Earth) project, which has deployed a sustainable, long-term network to ensure the preservation and access to multi-scale, multi-discipline, and multi-national environmental and biological science data (Michener et al. 2012). Created by members of the Community Engagement and Education (CEE) Working Group in 2011-2012, the freely available Educational Modules included three complementary components (slides, handouts, and exercises) that were designed to be adaptable for use in classrooms as well as for research data management training. Methods: Because the modules were initially created and launched in 2011-2012, the current members of the (renamed) Community Engagement and Outreach (CEO) Working Group were concerned that the materials could be and / or quickly become outdated and should be reviewed for accuracy, currency, and quality. In November 2015, the Working Group developed an evaluation rubric for use by outside reviewers. Review criteria were developed based on surveys and usage scenarios from previous DataONE projects. Peer reviewers were selected from the DataONE community network for their expertise in the areas covered by one of the 11 educational modules. Reviewers were contacted in March 2016, and were asked to volunteer to complete their evaluations online within one month of the request, by using a customized Google form. Results: For the 11 modules, 22 completed reviews were received by April 2016 from outside experts. Comments on all three components of each module (slides, handouts, and exercises) were compiled and evaluated by the postdoctoral fellow attached to the CEO Working Group. These reviews contributed to the full evaluation and revision by members of the Working Group of all educational modules in September 2016. This review process, as well as the potential lack of funding for ongoing maintenance by Working Group members or paid staff, provoked the group to transform the modules to a more stable, non-proprietary format, and move them to an online open repository hosting platform, GitHub. These decisions were made to foster sustainability, community engagement, version control, and transparency. Conclusion: Outside peer review of the modules by experts in the field was beneficial for highlighting areas of weakness or overlap in the education modules. The modules were initially created in 2011-2012 by an earlier iteration of the Working Group, and updates were needed due to the constant evolving practices in the field. Because the review process was lengthy (approximately one year) comparative to the rate of innovations in data management practices, the Working Group discussed other options that would allow community members to make updates available more quickly. The intent of migrating the modules to an online collaborative platform (GitHub) is to allow for iterative updates and ongoing outside review, and to provide further transparency about accuracy, currency, and quality in the spirit of open science and collaboration. Documentation about this project may be useful for others trying to develop and maintain educational resources for engagement and outreach, particularly in communities and spaces where information changes quickly, and open platforms are already in common use.

In their Perspective “Do not publish” (26 May, p. [800][1]), D. Lindenmayer and B. Scheele warn that publishing location data for rare, endangered, or newly described species could promote wildlife poaching, strain landholder relations, and accelerate habitat destruction. To prevent these

With the rise of electronic publishing and the inherent paradigm shifts for so many other scientific endeavours, it is time to consider a change in the practices of scholarly publication in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. To facilitate the speed and quality of science, the future of scholarly communication will rest on four pillars - an ecosystem of scholarly products, immediate and open access, open peer review, and full recognition for participating in the process. These four pillars enable us to build better tools to facilitate the discovery of new relevant work for individual scientists, one of the greatest challenges of our time as we cope with the current deluge of scientific information. By incorporating these principles into future publication platforms, we argue that science and society will be better served than by remaining locked into a publication formula that arose in the 1600s. It has served its purpose admirably and well, but it is time to move forward. With the rise of the Internet, scholarly publishing has embraced electronic distribution. But the tools afforded by the Internet and other advancing technologies have profound implications for scholarly communication beyond just distribution. We argue that, to best serve science, the process of scholarly communication must embrace these advances and evolve. Here we consider the current state of the process in ecology and evolutionary biology and propose directions for change. We identify four pillars for the future of scientific communication: (1) an ecosystem of scholarly products; (2) immediate and open access; (3) open peer review; and (4) full recognition for participating in the process. These four pillars will guide the development of better tools and practices for discovering and sharing scientific knowledge in a modern networked world. Things were far different when the existing system arose in the 1600s, and though it has served its purpose admirably and well, it is time to move forward.

Nestling begging is widely accepted as a form of communication through which an offspring can indicate to its parent its requirement for food. The honesty of this information is thought to be maintained by the cost of the signal, yet the success of the interaction is dependent on the presence of both the signaller and receiver. This study investigates the incidence of begging events occurring in the absence of a parent in southern grey shrikes, Lanius meridionalis. These 'parent-absent' begging events were found to represent 15% of all begging events and a significant decrease was recorded with increasing nestling age. The effects of sensory development and learning as nestlings age are discussed in the context of parent-absent begging in open- versus cavity-nesting species. Latency to respond to previous parental stimuli was not associated with the occurrence of these begging events and there was some evidence that hunger was the motivation to beg in the absence of a parent. However, parent-absent begging events were found to occur in clusters, with the interval preceding the first event being significantly longer than the interval between subsequent events. If not associated with state, this might suggest reduced predation risk and/or energetic cost if begging occurs soon after a previous begging event. Study of begging in the absence of parents may therefore provide important and original insights into the nature of begging, and should form part of future work on offspring solicitation.

We observed a Violet-green Swallow (Tachycineta thalassina) laying an egg in an active Western Bluebird (Sialia mexicana) nest. The Western Bluebird male and not the female, was aggressive to the Violet-green Swallow but the swallow remained to lay the egg. This is the first documented incidence of which we are aware involving altricial interspecific egg-laying during the nestling phase. We suggest the timing of this event was more consistent with incidental egg deposition, or egg-dumping, than brood parasitism or nest usurpation.

Peer review is an important element of scientific communication but deserves quantitative examination. We used data from the handling service manuscript Central for ten mid-tier ecology and evolution journals to test whether number of external reviews completed improved citation rates for all accepted manuscripts. Contrary to a previous study examining this issue using resubmission data as a proxy for reviews, we show that citation rates of manuscripts do not correlate with the number of individuals that provided reviews. Importantly, externally-reviewed papers do not outperform editor-only reviewed published papers in terms of visibility within a 5-year citation window. These findings suggest that in many instances editors can be all that is needed to review papers (or at least conduct the critical first review to assess general suitability) if the purpose of peer review is to primarily filter and that journals can consider reducing the number of referees associated with reviewing ecology and evolution papers.

Observation is a critical element of behavioural ecology and ethology. Here, we propose a similar set of techniques to enhance the study of the diversity patterns of invertebrate pollinators and associated plant species. In a body of avian research, cameras are set up on nests in blinds to examine chick and parent interactions. This avoids observer bias, minimizes interference, and provides numerous other benefits including timestamps, the capacity to record frequency and duration of activities, and provides a permanent archive of activity for later analyses. Hence, we propose that small video cameras in blinds can also be used to continuously monitor pollinator activity on plants thereby capitalizing on those same benefits. This method was proofed in 2010 in the alpine in BC, Canada on target focal plant species and on open mixed assemblages of plant species. Apple ipod nanos successfully recorded activity for an entire day at a time totalling 450 hours and provided sufficient resolution and field of view to both identify pollinators to recognizable taxonomic units and monitor movement and visitation rates at a scale of view of approximately 50 cm2. This method is not a replacement for pan traps or sweep nets but an opportunity to enhance these datasets with more detailed, finer-resolution data. Importantly, the test of this specific method also indicates that far more hours of observation - using any method - are likely required than most current ecological studies published to accurately estimate pollinator diversity. NOTE: Supporting information to this article may be found in the left menu.

When eggs hatch asynchronously, offspring arising from last-hatched eggs often exhibit a competitive disadvantage compared with their older, larger nestmates. Strong sibling competition might result in a pattern of resource allocation favoring larger nestlings, but active food allocation towards smaller offspring may compensate for the negative effects of asynchronous hatching. We examined patterns of resource allocation by green-rumped parrotlet parents to small and large broods under control and food-supplemented conditions. There was no difference between parents and among brood sizes in visit rate or number of feeds delivered, although females spent marginally more time in the nest than males. Both male and female parents preferentially fed offspring that had a higher begging effort than the remainder of the brood. Mean begging levels did not differ between small and large broods, but smaller offspring begged more than their older nestmates in large broods. Male parents fed small offspring less often in both brood sizes. Female parents fed offspring evenly in small broods, while in large broods they fed smaller offspring more frequently, with the exception of the very last hatched individual. These data suggest male parrotlets exhibit a feeding preference for larger offspring—possibly arising from the outcome of sibling competition—but that females practice active food allocation, particularly in larger brood sizes. These differential patterns of resource allocation between the sexes are consistent with other studies of parrots and may reflect some level of female compensation for the limitations imposed on smaller offspring by hatching asynchrony.

We show that when ecologists act as reviewers their reported rejection rates recommended for manuscripts increases with their publication frequency in high impact factor journals. Rejection rate however does not relate to reviewer age. These results indicate that the likelihood of getting a paper accepted for publication may depend upon factors in addition to scientific merit. Multiple reviewer selection for a given manuscript therefore should consider not only appropriate expertise, but also reviewers that have variable publication experience with a range of different journals to ensure balanced treatment. Interestingly since age did not relate to rejection rates, more senior scientists are not necessarily more jaded in reviewing practices.

With any given data set there is a large number of potential statistical and practical issues. In a study of the relative importance of double-blind review [1], we selected the most straightforward analytical approach a priori for comparison of data before and after a change in review policy, and for a simple comparison with other similar journals. Admittedly, a cornucopia of alternative post hoc approaches can be applied, some of which probably would fail to detect any change [2]. However, we were clear that our study was observational and that the changes occurring at the journal where double-blind review was introduced might be due to alternate variables.

Double-blind peer review, in which neither author nor reviewer identity are revealed, is rarely practised in ecology or evolution journals. However, in 2001, double-blind review was introduced by the journal Behavioral Ecology. Following this policy change, there was a significant increase in female first-authored papers, a pattern not observed in a very similar journal that provides reviewers with author information. No negative effects could be identified, suggesting that double-blind review should be considered by other journals.

The characteristics of referees and the potential subsequent effects on the peer-review process are an important consideration for science since the integrity of the system depends on the appropriate evaluation of merit. In 2006, we conducted an online survey of 1334 ecologists and evolutionary biologists pertaining to the review process. Respondents were from Europe, North America and other regions of the world, with the majority from English first language countries. Women comprised a third of all respondents, consistent with their representation in the scientific academic community. Among respondents we found no correlation between the time typically taken over a review and the reported average rejection rate. On average, Europeans took longer over reviewing a manuscript than North Americans, and females took longer than males, but reviewed fewer manuscripts. Males recommended rejection of manuscripts more frequently than females, regardless of region. Hence, editors and potential authors should consider alternative sets of criteria, to what exists now, when selecting a panel of referees to potentially balance different tendencies by gender or region.

Interest in nestling begging arises from the theoretical conflict over resource allocation between parents and their offspring. This conflict was first proposed by Trivers (1974), who suggested that an individual offspring is selected to obtain a greater proportion of resources than the parent is selected to give. That is, a parent is equally related to each offspring in each brood by half, whereas a nestling is more highly related to itself (i.e., 1.00) than to its present or future siblings (i.e., 0.50-0.25, on average). Conflict between parent and offspring can be expressed throughout the period of parental care from conception through independence, during which offspring are selected to elicit parental investment for a period exceeding the optimum for the parent. Trivers (1974) suggested an offspring is able to “compete” effectively with its parent through psychological manipulation. By begging until its needs have been met, the offspring indicates its degree of distress (for example, its requirement for food) and thereby encourages a higher level of parental investment. In such a system, any offspring signaling a “dishonest” (excessive) level of need would benefit from receiving a level of parental

We are delighted that our original paper [1] has prompted journal editors to examine variation in the acceptance rates of papers by gender. However, it might be worth pointing out that we had no a priori expectations concerning the proportions of male and female first authors in single-blind review journals. We did not suggest that the increase in male authors observed in the Journal of Biogeography (JB) resulted from reviewer or other bias; it could well be driven by demographic shifts in the publishing community across time.

Advertisements for faculty positions in creasingly require, or imply a strong prefer ence for, candidates who have held one or more postdoctoral positions (Russo 2004). Unfortunately, the number of available postdoctoral fellowships is not keeping up with the yearly increase in the number of graduating PhD students (COSEPUP 2000). As a result, more and more postdoc positions in ecology are creatively defined, soft money positions, often requiring some level of self-fund ing. The lack of standard application methods, guide lines, or support can be worrying for students trying to squeeze a job search in between writing dissertation chapters. Here, we describe the experiences of three recent PhD graduates in preparing for, applying to, and obtaining postdoctoral positions. We emphasize the preparation and persistence needed to reach this increas ingly important rung on the ecological career ladder. When do I begin the search process? Our own experi ences, and those of our peers, suggest that PhD students who began thinking about their future goals well before their final year in graduate school were the most success ful in obtaining quality postdocs. They shared their goals with their dissertation committees, as a way of cross checking expectations and developing a realistic timeline for degree completion. Stories of students who graduated with no job waiting for them are all too common. Less common, but perhaps equally frightening, are the tales of students who started jobs before completing their degrees and ended up with terminal AbDs (All but Dissertation). An early inventory of career and personal goals leads to success in graduate school, which provides the founda tion for a successful postdoc search (Boume and Freidberg 2006). What types of opportunities are out there? Ecological post doctoral positions can range from teaching at a small lib eral arts school, to conducting research at a large univer sity, to working for a government institution. The process of applying for each of these varies greatly (WebTable 1). In general, we have found that the complexity of the application process is positively correlated with the degree of autonomy a postdoc will experience on the job. With advertised positions, principal investigators expect their postdocs to work on the project funding the posi tion, whereas fellowship and institutional positions that require a proposal as part of the application process offer the postdoc greater independence. Due to the burgeon ing pool of applicants and the dearth of available posi tions, many students find they must create a position for themselves, which can offer even greater flexibility, but demands considerable forethought and planning. How does one create a postdoc position? One of us (KH) began the process of creating a postdoc position 14 months prior to her expected graduation date. She began by researching the past and current work of potential postdoc mentors with whom she was inter ested in working, including the work of their current students and postdocs. Initially, she sent each potential mentor a personalized email with new research ideas and explained how she thought her ideas would fit into their lab's research mission. She also inquired about funding opportunities and offered to investigate oppor tunities to write proposals with them for new funds. She maintained continuous communication with potential mentors throughout the final year of her PhD, to nur ture these budding relationships, and was rewarded for her efforts when one grew into a successful postdoc collaboration. The process itself was also extremely valuable, as it allowed KH to meet and discuss her research with several prominent ecologists. How do I make the most of professional relationships? As with any job search, it is often not what you know, but who you know that really matters. The importance of personal relationships cannot be overemphasized. In this regard, the dissertation committee can be a student's greatest asset. Two of us found postdoc positions directly through a committee member, and all of us relied on committee members for letters of reference. Interacting with committee members outside of official meetings, as well as taking a class or seminar with each member, are great ways to strengthen these relationships, which will, in turn, improve committee member reference letters. Then, when applying for jobs, references should be care fully matched to the position announcement. Social branches that extend beyond the committee are another effective means of fostering future postdoc oppor tunities. Employers frequently interview candidates rec ommended by someone they trust, and are more likely to hire someone they already know and respect. Active par ticipation at professional meetings can lead to greater name recognition. Meeting participation also offers an opportunity to assess the general level of interest in your

Variation in length and asymmetry of wing primary feathers can arise from a breakdown of developmental homeostasis, feather abrasion and incomplete growth during moult. Indirect predictions have been made concerning the impact of primary length and asymmetry on the flight ability of birds, but they have not been explicitly tested. Here we provide evidence from both natural variation in primary feather condition and experimental manipulations of primary feather length and asymmetry to indicate that these factors influence aspects of flight performance in the Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris. Damaged and incompletely grown primary feathers reduce escape flight performance. Experimentally reduced primary lengths reduce take-off speed; increased primary asymmetry decreases aerial manoeuvrability. A comparison of the experimental and natural plumage data indicates that birds may be able to adapt to a change in wing morphology, perhaps reducing the effects of feather loss or damage on flight. The results from this study indicate that primary feathers are under strong stabilising selection to maximise developmental homeostasis and reduce feather asymmetry. These findings are also of ecological importance to the damageavoidance and moult strategies of these birds. This is the first experimental evidence to indicate a quantitative reduction in flight performance with feather lengths and asymmetries typical of those observed during flight feather moult and feather damage in any species.