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Conservation agriculture has many potential benefits for small farmers. This study seeks to estimate the value that farmers in eastern Uganda place on some these benefits. Data from a choice experiment study are analyzed with a mixed logit model to determine farmers’ willingness to pay for increases in maize yield, reductions in erosion, and reductions in land preparation labor requirements. It finds that farmers have a statistically significant willingness to pay for increases in yield and reductions in erosion, but not for reductions in land preparation labor.

Conservation agriculture has many potential benefits for small farmers. This study seeks to estimate the value that farmers in eastern Uganda place on some these benefits. Data from a choice experiment study are analyzed with a mixed logit model to determine farmers’ willingness to pay for increases in maize yield, reductions in erosion, and reductions in land preparation labor requirements. It finds that farmers have a statistically significant willingness to pay for increases in yield and reductions in erosion, but not for reductions in land preparation labor.

Adoption of agricultural technology can lead to multiple benefits to farm households, including increased productivity, incomes and food consumption. However, specific causal linkages between agricultural technology adoption and child nutrition outcomes are rarely explored in the literature. This paper helps bridge this gap through an impact assessment of the adoption of improved maize varieties on child nutrition outcomes using a recent household survey in rural Ethiopia. The conceptual linkage between adoption of improved maize varieties and child nutrition is first established using an agricultural household model. Instrumental variable (IV) estimation suggests the overall impacts of adoption on child height-for-age and weight-for-age z-scores to be positive and significant. Quantile IV regressions further reveal that such impacts are largest among children with poorest nutritional outcomes. By combining a decomposition procedure with system of equations estimation, it is found that the increase in own-produced maize consumption is the major channel through which adoption of improved maize varieties affects child nutrition.

Adoption of agricultural technology can lead to multiple benefits to farm households, including increased productivity, incomes and food consumption. However, specific causal linkages between agricultural technology adoption and child nutrition outcomes are rarely explored in the literature. This paper helps bridge this gap through an impact assessment of the adoption of improved maize varieties on child nutrition outcomes using a recent household survey in rural Ethiopia. The conceptual linkage between adoption of improved maize varieties and child nutrition is first established using an agricultural household model. Instrumental variable (IV) estimation suggests the overall impacts of adoption on child height-for-age and weight-for-age z-scores to be positive and significant. Quantile IV regressions further reveal that such impacts are largest among children with poorest nutritional outcomes. By combining a decomposition procedure with system of equations estimation, it is found that the increase in own-produced maize consumption is the major channel through which adoption of improved maize varieties affects child nutrition.

A procedure is developed to examine the ex-post impacts of improved maize varieties on poverty in rural Ethiopia. Yield and cost effects of adoption are estimated econometrically under assumptions of both homogeneous and heterogeneous treatment effects. A backward derivation procedure is employed within an economic surplus framework using estimated treatment effects to identify the counterfactual income distribution without improved maize arieties. Poverty impacts are estimated as the differences in poverty indices computed using observed and counterfactual income distributions. Improved maize varieties have led to noticeable reduction in the poverty headcount ratio, depth, and severity in rural Ethiopia. However, poor producers benefit the least from adoption because their land areas are limited.

A procedure is developed to examine the ex-post impacts of improved maize varieties on poverty in rural Ethiopia. Yield and cost effects of adoption are estimated econometrically under assumptions of both homogeneous and heterogeneous treatment effects. A backward derivation procedure is employed within an economic surplus framework using estimated treatment effects to identify the counterfactual income distribution without improved maize arieties. Poverty impacts are estimated as the differences in poverty indices computed using observed and counterfactual income distributions. Improved maize varieties have led to noticeable reduction in the poverty headcount ratio, depth, and severity in rural Ethiopia. However, poor producers benefit the least from adoption because their land areas are limited.

Cost-effective extension strategies are needed to promote widespread adoption of agricultural technologies in developing countries. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices, for example, can offer economic, health, and environmental benefits but remain largely underused. This study evaluates the current IPM dissemination program implemented by the Bangladesh Department of Agricultural Extension and uses a linear programming model to examine alternative strategies to improve IPM adoption. Results suggest that technology transfer programs may increase their impact by reallocating funding from intensive but costly interpersonal communication methods (i.e., farmer field schools) to less intensive methods (i.e., mass media and field days) that reach broader audiences.

Health disparities are abundantly recorded in literature, but is much less understood within a rural-urban context. In this paper, four major diseases in Virginia are studied: cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease (heart disease) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Separate count data regressions are estimated at regional level to provide a primary understanding of those factors. A simultaneous equations model with rural-urban specification are then estimated via seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) techniques to take account of possible causalities among these diseases as well as error correlations, which is followed by Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition of the disparity proportions explained by observed characteristics and unobserved mechanisms. The results suggest that regional-level factors are significantly correlated with health disparities between rural and urban areas. The unknown mechanisms behind these linkages are different between rural and urban areas, and explain an even larger proportion of these disparities.

Health disparities are abundantly recorded in literature, but is much less understood within a rural-urban context. In this paper, four major diseases in Virginia are studied: cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease (heart disease) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Separate count data regressions are estimated at regional level to provide a primary understanding of those factors. A simultaneous equations model with rural-urban specification are then estimated via seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) techniques to take account of possible causalities among these diseases as well as error correlations, which is followed by Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition of the disparity proportions explained by observed characteristics and unobserved mechanisms. The results suggest that regional-level factors are significantly correlated with health disparities between rural and urban areas. The unknown mechanisms behind these linkages are different between rural and urban areas, and explain an even larger proportion of these disparities.

Marker-assisted breeding could have a major impact in relieving productivity constraints that cannot as easily or rapidly be relieved by conventional breeding alone. This paper estimates the benefits of using marker-assisted breeding, as compared to conventional breeding alone, in developing cassava varieties resistant to cassava mosaic disease, green mite, whitefly and post-harvest physiological deterioration in Nigeria, Ghana and Uganda. Marker-assisted breeding is estimated to save at least four years in the breeding cycle for varieties resistant to the pests and to result in incremental net benefits over 25 years in the range of $34 to $800 million depending on the country, the particular constraint and various assumptions. Benefits may reach as high as $3 billion for resistance to post-harvest physiological deterioration, as conventional breeding is not projected to solve the problem within a reasonable time frame.

This study measures the amount of agricultural research engaged in maintenance research for commodities and non-commodities. The percentage of commodity based maintenance research has risen from roughly 35% in 1986 to 41% in 2008. The percentage of non-commodity based agricultural research is roughly 29%. Additionally, an empirical model is developed to explain maintenance research expenditures. The influences of agricultural research funding, climatic conditions, pest and pathogen control, and agricultural production on maintenance research expenditures are tested in the long and short run. Each category has a statistically significant impact on maintenance research expenditures.

Marker-assisted breeding could have a major impact in relieving productivity constraints that cannot as easily or rapidly be relieved by conventional breeding alone. This paper estimates the benefits of using marker-assisted breeding, as compared to conventional breeding alone, in developing cassava varieties resistant to cassava mosaic disease, green mite, whitefly and post-harvest physiological deterioration in Nigeria, Ghana and Uganda. Marker-assisted breeding is estimated to save at least four years in the breeding cycle for varieties resistant to the pests and to result in incremental net benefits over 25 years in the range of $34 to $800 million depending on the country, the particular constraint and various assumptions. Benefits may reach as high as $3 billion for resistance to post-harvest physiological deterioration, as conventional breeding is not projected to solve the problem within a reasonable time frame.

The benefits of developing and releasing salinity-tolerant and phosphorous-deficiency-tolerant rice in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia and the Philippines were estimated for marker-assisted breeding as compared to conventional breeding using economic surplus analysis. Marker-assisted breeding is estimated to save at least 2 to 3 years in the breeding cycle and result in incremental benefits over 25 years in the range of $300 to $800 million depending on the country, stress, and time lags. Salinity and phosphorous deficient soils are difficult problems to solve through conventional breeding because of “genetic load” or undesirable traits that accompany desirable ones during backcrossing. MAB, enabled by advances in genomics and molecular mapping is more precise and hence time-saving. Solving salinity and P-deficiency problems is important, regardless of whether MAB or CB is used, as the cumulative benefits are at least $220 million and as much as $4 billion over the next 25 years depending on the problem and country.

The benefits of developing and releasing salinity-tolerant and phosphorous-deficiency-tolerant rice in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia and the Philippines were estimated for marker-assisted breeding as compared to conventional breeding using economic surplus analysis. Marker-assisted breeding is estimated to save at least 2 to 3 years in the breeding cycle and result in incremental benefits over 25 years in the range of $300 to $800 million depending on the country, stress, and time lags. Salinity and phosphorous deficient soils are difficult problems to solve through conventional breeding because of “genetic load” or undesirable traits that accompany desirable ones during backcrossing. MAB, enabled by advances in genomics and molecular mapping is more precise and hence time-saving. Solving salinity and P-deficiency problems is important, regardless of whether MAB or CB is used, as the cumulative benefits are at least $220 million and as much as $4 billion over the next 25 years depending on the problem and country.

This paper presents an economic model of group formation with an application to data collected from an agricultural credit program in western Honduras. We formulate a simple theory of group formation using the concept of centers of gravity to explain why individuals join a group. According to our theory, prospective members join based on the potential benefits and costs of group membership, and based on their perception of social distance between themselves and other group members. Social distance is unobservable by outsiders but known by the individual: if you are in then you know who has blue hair. Thus, we argue that social distance helps explain preferences for group formation. To test our theory we analyze data collected from members and non-members of PRODERT, a program that has helped create 188 “Cajas Rurales” (CRs). Using conjoint analysis we test for differences in preferences between members and non-members for the main attributes of the CR. We find that members and non-members exhibit similar preferences for the attributes of the CR; therefore non-membership is not related to supply factors. Using information gathered by executing field experiments, we estimate a proxy for social distance. We use this proxy to run a group formation equation and find that it explains, along with individual characteristics, participation in the CR. Finally we offer suggestions on how to balance performance and coverage in programs in which beneficiaries decide who joins. Small cohesive groups may show exceptional performance at the cost of low coverage, and the opposite may be true.

This paper presents an economic model of group formation with an application to data collected from an agricultural credit program in western Honduras. We formulate a simple theory of group formation using the concept of centers of gravity to explain why individuals join a group. According to our theory, prospective members join based on the potential benefits and costs of group membership, and based on their perception of social distance between themselves and other group members. Social distance is unobservable by outsiders but known by the individual: if you are in then you know who has blue hair. Thus, we argue that social distance helps explain preferences for group formation. To test our theory we analyze data collected from members and non-members of PRODERT, a program that has helped create 188 “Cajas Rurales” (CRs). Using conjoint analysis we test for differences in preferences between members and non-members for the main attributes of the CR. We find that members and non-members exhibit similar preferences for the attributes of the CR; therefore non-membership is not related to supply factors. Using information gathered by executing field experiments, we estimate a proxy for social distance. We use this proxy to run a group formation equation and find that it explains, along with individual characteristics, participation in the CR. Finally we offer suggestions on how to balance performance and coverage in programs in which beneficiaries decide who joins. Small cohesive groups may show exceptional performance at the cost of low coverage, and the opposite may be true.

Potato farmers in Ecuador rely on chemical inputs to manage pests and optimize yields. Integrated pest management techniques lower production costs, reduce pesticide exposure, and improve long-term agricultural sustainability. Public extension does not, however, exist in Ecuador and cost-effective means of communicating complex messages to producers are needed. We analyze cost-effectiveness of alternative dissemination methods, including farmer field schools (FFS), field days, pamphlets, and word-of-mouth transmission. Field days and pamphlets have strong impacts on adoption, especially considering their low costs. FFS are effective, but expensive. Evidence also indicates significant diffusion from FFS to non-FFS farmers, indicating high complementarity across methods.

Ecuadorian farmers do not play the investment game (Berg, Dickhaut and McCabe 1995) the same with community farmers as they do with agricultural technicians. Women exhibit a preference for trust in agricultural technicians (vertical trust). Using experimental and survey data from 191 farmers we examine factors associated with 1) farmer trust in community members, 2) farmer trust in agricultural technicians, and 3) differences between levels of trust in agricultural technicians and community farmers. Then we explore how our measures of trust correlate with pesticide knowledge. Farmers who place more trust in community farmers score lower on our pesticide knowledge exam. We find that farmers who exhibit a preference for trusting agricultural technicians score higher on our pesticide knowledge exam.

This paper uses an asset-base framework to analyze the determinants of rural growth and sustainable poverty reduction for the three poorest countries in Central America: Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua…Using a combination of GIS mapping techniques, quantitative household analysis, and qualitative analyses of assets and livelihoods, the authors generate a description of rural territories that recognizes the differential effects of policies and asset bundles across space and households. They identify the combinations of human, natural and physical, social and location-specific assets that matter most to raise household well-being and take advantage of prospects for poverty-reducing growth.

This paper uses an asset-base framework to analyze the determinants of rural growth and poverty reduction for the three poorest countries in Central America: Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. High inequalities in the distribution of productive assets in all three countries constrain how the poor share in the benefits of growth, even under appropriate policy regimes. Heterogeneous conditions require complementary analysis of spatial determinants of well-being, analysis of household-level assets, and how household livelihood strategies, conditioned on spatial attributes and asset bases, determine well-being outcomes. Using a combination of GIS mapping techniques and quantitative household analysis, we generate a description of rural territories that recognizes the differential effects of policies and asset bundles across space and households. We identify the asset combinations that matter most to raise household well-being and take advantage of poverty-reducing growth. In all three countries, investments have generally been directed toward more favored areas. But area economic potential does not automatically translate into improved well-being for all households. We found a strong overlap between economic potential, poverty rates and poverty densities in Guatemala and Honduras but not in Nicaragua. This implies that while in Guatemala and Honduras public investments may be targeted toward the Western Altiplano and the hillside areas respectively, in Nicaragua high poverty rates but low poverty densities in the Atlantic zone, and somewhat lower poverty rates but high poverty densities near Managua and other urban centers in the Central and Pacific regions, present a trade-off which makes targeting decisions more complicated.

This paper uses an asset-base framework to analyze the determinants of rural growth and poverty reduction for the three poorest countries in Central America: Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. High inequalities in the distribution of productive assets in all three countries constrain how the poor share in the benefits of growth, even under appropriate policy regimes. Heterogeneous conditions require complementary analysis of spatial determinants of well-being, analysis of household-level assets, and how household livelihood strategies, conditioned on spatial attributes and asset bases, determine well-being outcomes. Using a combination of GIS mapping techniques and quantitative household analysis, we generate a description of rural territories that recognizes the differential effects of policies and asset bundles across space and households. We identify the asset combinations that matter most to raise household well-being and take advantage of poverty-reducing growth. In all three countries, investments have generally been directed toward more favored areas. But area economic potential does not automatically translate into improved well-being for all households. We found a strong overlap between economic potential, poverty rates and poverty densities in Guatemala and Honduras but not in Nicaragua. This implies that while in Guatemala and Honduras public investments may be targeted toward the Western Altiplano and the hillside areas respectively, in Nicaragua high poverty rates but low poverty densities in the Atlantic zone, and somewhat lower poverty rates but high poverty densities near Managua and other urban centers in the Central and Pacific regions, present a trade-off which makes targeting decisions more complicated.

Ecuadorian farmers do not play the investment game (Berg, Dickhaut and McCabe 1995) the same with community farmers as they do with agricultural technicians. Women exhibit a preference for trust in agricultural technicians (vertical trust). Using experimental and survey data from 191 farmers we examine factors associated with 1) farmer trust in community members, 2) farmer trust in agricultural technicians, and 3) differences between levels of trust in agricultural technicians and community farmers. Then we explore how our measures of trust correlate with pesticide knowledge. Farmers who place more trust in community farmers score lower on our pesticide knowledge exam. We find that farmers who exhibit a preference for trusting agricultural technicians score higher on our pesticide knowledge exam.

Agricultural development is essential for improved well-being in rural Ecuador. As much as 40% of the population relies on agriculture as its primary source of income and agricultural exports account for a significant proportion of foreign exchange revenue. In the highlands, potatoes are a major staple, and more than 90,000 producers grow them on about 60,000 hectares of land. Potato production is associated with heavy use of chemical inputs--pesticides and fertilizers--to manage pests and optimize profits. Concerns have emerged about the sustainability of Ecuador's potato crop as rising input costs have created a cost squeeze and public health officials are increasingly concerned about health consequences of pesticide over use. Producers need alternative pest management approaches that are feasible, economically sustainable, and effective at controlling pests. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an approach that can help lower production costs, reduce exposure to pesticides, and improve long-term sustainability of the agricultural system. The national agricultural research institution in Ecuador (INIAP), supported in part by the IPM Collaborative Research Support Project (IPM CRSP) funded by USAID has developed technologies to manage potato pests. Information regarding these technologies reaches farmers through several diffusion mechanisms, including farmer field schools (FFS), field days, exposure to other farmers, and written media (e.g. pamphlets). Given only limited involvement of the public sector in technology transfer, decision makers need to understand the relative cost effectiveness of alternative dissemination methods. This understanding can help promote better technology transfer and, in so doing, effectively create a more sustainable potato production sector in Ecuador. This study had several objectives: 1) to analyze the extent of IPM use in Carchi and identify the determinants and constraints to IPM adoption, 2) to evaluate how IPM technologies are spread among potato farmers in Carchi, Ecuador, and 3) to compare the cost-effectiveness of the FFSs to other information dissemination methods. Carchi is of interest because it is Ecuador's primary potato production region, its potato producers suffer damage from the three major potato pests, and because it shares a border with Colombia. There is interest in generating stable agriculture-base livelihoods in the region. The study employed a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to achieve the above objectives. A comprehensive survey was conducted of 109 potato farmers in Carchi. Respondents included 30 Farmer Field School (FFS) participants, 28 farmers who had been exposed to FFS-participants, and 51 randomly selected farmers. Farmers were asked a series of questions including the following information categories: demographic and socioeconomic, potato production, pesticide usage and handling, IPM knowledge and implemented techniques, and knowledge about the three most significant potato pests. These pests are, in order of economic significance, Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans), the Andean Potato Weevil (Premnotrypes vorax), and the Central American Tuber Moth (Tecia solanivora). The quantitative information was combined with qualitative interviews, information on budgets and costs from the FFSs, and expert opinion. The analysis involved three steps: (i) determination of spread of information and sources of information by adoption level; (ii) analysis of the determinants of adoption using an ordered probit model; and (iii) use of the econometric results together with information on program costs to examine cost effectiveness. Step (i) involved use of descriptive statistics and differences in means. Each farmer was given a score for his or her level of IPM usage: 1=no usage, 2=minimal adoption, 3=moderate adoption, 4=high adoption, and 5=full adoption. The IPM index value is used to analyze the relationship between access to information, IPM knowledge and adoption. It is also used as the dependent variable in the econometric model. In the ordered probit model, independent variables included three categories of potential determinants of adoption for IPM potato technologies including: (i) farmer characteristics, (ii) economic factors, and (iii) institutional factors. Technology characteristics (complexity and labor requirements) and farmer perceptions (perceived profitability, risk, and preferences) are considered, not as separate variables in the model, but qualitatively to provide feedback in conjunction with model results. Specific variables included in the econometric model were: farmer age, education, household size, household members over the age of 14 (indication of labor availability), land holdings, illness from pesticides, and five variables representing the sources of information for acquiring knowledge about IPM. The five information sources included: (i) attended FFS, (ii) exposed to FFS-participant farmers, (iii) exposed to non-FFS farmers, (iv) attended one or more field days, and (v) exposed to written materials (pamphlets). Model results showed that farmer characteristics (socio-economic factors) did not play a significant role in affecting adoption rates. Four of five information sources had a positive impact on adoption. FFS-participation was the main determinant of adoption, followed by field days, pamphlets, and exposure to FFS-participants. Apart from information effects, the only other significant variable in the model was household size where larger households adopted less IPM. Lack of effects from household variables may be due to limitations in the survey sample. On the other hand, farmer characteristics affected participation in FFS, which, in turn, was a major determinant of IPM adoption. The variable land holdings was included in the model to evaluate whether there was a relationship between household wealth and adoption. Although it was not significant in the probit regression, there is evidence that capital or income may be a constraint for adopters. When we examined technology attributes of specific IPM activities and the patterns of adoption, we found that activities perceived as risky and/or were capital-intensive were adopted least in all farmer groups. These activities included buying high-quality seed, use of resistant varieties, irrigation, use of recommended storage, and use of fungicides with different active ingredients. In addition, most farmers claimed that an increase in pesticide prices or potato prices would cause them to use more IPM. Marginal effects from the ordered probit model and cost data were used to determine the relative cost-effectiveness of information dissemination mechanisms. In terms of quality of information, FFS participants have the most thorough understanding of IPM and the highest adoption rates. Concerning pesticide safety, FFSs have had the most effect on farmers in terms of safe pesticide handling. Factoring in costs, field days and pamphlets are possibly more cost-effective as diffusion mechanisms. Although these farmers have slightly lower knowledge scores and adoption rates, the benefits are high relative to the costs of implementation. FFS cost 20 times as much as a field days and 60 times as much as a pamphlet. They provide valuable information but only a small percentage of farmers can attend the limited number of schools. Through exposure to FFS participants, other farmers choose to learn about IPM through field days and pamphlets. By combining these information diffusion mechanisms (FFS, field days, farmer interactions and pamphlets), large populations of farmers are able to access important IPM messages. Based on our survey results, we expect that access to information will lead to higher rates of adoption. The study found evidence of farmer-to-farmer diffusion from FFS to non-FFS farmers, but further analysis is necessary to evaluate the nature and quality of information transfers. Analysis is also needed to identify communities that have not been exposed to IPM and evaluate the best approach for those areas.

Agricultural development is essential for improved well-being in rural Ecuador. As much as 40% of the population relies on agriculture as its primary source of income and agricultural exports account for a significant proportion of foreign exchange revenue. In the highlands, potatoes are a major staple, and more than 90,000 producers grow them on about 60,000 hectares of land. Potato production is associated with heavy use of chemical inputs--pesticides and fertilizers--to manage pests and optimize profits. Concerns have emerged about the sustainability of Ecuador's potato crop as rising input costs have created a cost squeeze and public health officials are increasingly concerned about health consequences of pesticide over use. Producers need alternative pest management approaches that are feasible, economically sustainable, and effective at controlling pests. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an approach that can help lower production costs, reduce exposure to pesticides, and improve long-term sustainability of the agricultural system. The national agricultural research institution in Ecuador (INIAP), supported in part by the IPM Collaborative Research Support Project (IPM CRSP) funded by USAID has developed technologies to manage potato pests. Information regarding these technologies reaches farmers through several diffusion mechanisms, including farmer field schools (FFS), field days, exposure to other farmers, and written media (e.g. pamphlets). Given only limited involvement of the public sector in technology transfer, decision makers need to understand the relative cost effectiveness of alternative dissemination methods. This understanding can help promote better technology transfer and, in so doing, effectively create a more sustainable potato production sector in Ecuador. This study had several objectives: 1) to analyze the extent of IPM use in Carchi and identify the determinants and constraints to IPM adoption, 2) to evaluate how IPM technologies are spread among potato farmers in Carchi, Ecuador, and 3) to compare the cost-effectiveness of the FFSs to other information dissemination methods. Carchi is of interest because it is Ecuador's primary potato production region, its potato producers suffer damage from the three major potato pests, and because it shares a border with Colombia. There is interest in generating stable agriculture-base livelihoods in the region. The study employed a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to achieve the above objectives. A comprehensive survey was conducted of 109 potato farmers in Carchi. Respondents included 30 Farmer Field School (FFS) participants, 28 farmers who had been exposed to FFS-participants, and 51 randomly selected farmers. Farmers were asked a series of questions including the following information categories: demographic and socioeconomic, potato production, pesticide usage and handling, IPM knowledge and implemented techniques, and knowledge about the three most significant potato pests. These pests are, in order of economic significance, Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans), the Andean Potato Weevil (Premnotrypes vorax), and the Central American Tuber Moth (Tecia solanivora). The quantitative information was combined with qualitative interviews, information on budgets and costs from the FFSs, and expert opinion. The analysis involved three steps: (i) determination of spread of information and sources of information by adoption level; (ii) analysis of the determinants of adoption using an ordered probit model; and (iii) use of the econometric results together with information on program costs to examine cost effectiveness. Step (i) involved use of descriptive statistics and differences in means. Each farmer was given a score for his or her level of IPM usage: 1=no usage, 2=minimal adoption, 3=moderate adoption, 4=high adoption, and 5=full adoption. The IPM index value is used to analyze the relationship between access to information, IPM knowledge and adoption. It is also used as the dependent variable in the econometric model. In the ordered probit model, independent variables included three categories of potential determinants of adoption for IPM potato technologies including: (i) farmer characteristics, (ii) economic factors, and (iii) institutional factors. Technology characteristics (complexity and labor requirements) and farmer perceptions (perceived profitability, risk, and preferences) are considered, not as separate variables in the model, but qualitatively to provide feedback in conjunction with model results. Specific variables included in the econometric model were: farmer age, education, household size, household members over the age of 14 (indication of labor availability), land holdings, illness from pesticides, and five variables representing the sources of information for acquiring knowledge about IPM. The five information sources included: (i) attended FFS, (ii) exposed to FFS-participant farmers, (iii) exposed to non-FFS farmers, (iv) attended one or more field days, and (v) exposed to written materials (pamphlets). Model results showed that farmer characteristics (socio-economic factors) did not play a significant role in affecting adoption rates. Four of five information sources had a positive impact on adoption. FFS-participation was the main determinant of adoption, followed by field days, pamphlets, and exposure to FFS-participants. Apart from information effects, the only other significant variable in the model was household size where larger households adopted less IPM. Lack of effects from household variables may be due to limitations in the survey sample. On the other hand, farmer characteristics affected participation in FFS, which, in turn, was a major determinant of IPM adoption. The variable land holdings was included in the model to evaluate whether there was a relationship between household wealth and adoption. Although it was not significant in the probit regression, there is evidence that capital or income may be a constraint for adopters. When we examined technology attributes of specific IPM activities and the patterns of adoption, we found that activities perceived as risky and/or were capital-intensive were adopted least in all farmer groups. These activities included buying high-quality seed, use of resistant varieties, irrigation, use of recommended storage, and use of fungicides with different active ingredients. In addition, most farmers claimed that an increase in pesticide prices or potato prices would cause them to use more IPM. Marginal effects from the ordered probit model and cost data were used to determine the relative cost-effectiveness of information dissemination mechanisms. In terms of quality of information, FFS participants have the most thorough understanding of IPM and the highest adoption rates. Concerning pesticide safety, FFSs have had the most effect on farmers in terms of safe pesticide handling. Factoring in costs, field days and pamphlets are possibly more cost-effective as diffusion mechanisms. Although these farmers have slightly lower knowledge scores and adoption rates, the benefits are high relative to the costs of implementation. FFS cost 20 times as much as a field days and 60 times as much as a pamphlet. They provide valuable information but only a small percentage of farmers can attend the limited number of schools. Through exposure to FFS participants, other farmers choose to learn about IPM through field days and pamphlets. By combining these information diffusion mechanisms (FFS, field days, farmer interactions and pamphlets), large populations of farmers are able to access important IPM messages. Based on our survey results, we expect that access to information will lead to higher rates of adoption. The study found evidence of farmer-to-farmer diffusion from FFS to non-FFS farmers, but further analysis is necessary to evaluate the nature and quality of information transfers. Analysis is also needed to identify communities that have not been exposed to IPM and evaluate the best approach for those areas.

Economic impacts of research that developed Rosette Virus-resistance peanut in Uganda are estimated. Changes in economic surplus are calculated and combined with household data to assess changes in poverty rates and effects on livelihoods of the poor. The poverty rate may decline up to 1.5 percent as a result of the research.

Economic impacts of research that developed Rosette Virus-resistance peanut in Uganda are estimated. Changes in economic surplus are calculated and combined with household data to assess changes in poverty rates and effects on livelihoods of the poor. The poverty rate may decline up to 1.5 percent as a result of the research.

The adoption of more efficient farming practices and technologies that enhance agricultural productivity and improve environmental sustainability is instrumental for achieving economic growth, food security and poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa. Our research examines the interaction between public investments, community health, and adoption of productivity and land enhancing technologies by households in the northern Ethiopian state of Tigray. Agricultural technology adoption decisions are modeled as a sequential process where the timing of choices can matter. We find that time spent sick and opportunity costs of caring for sick family members are significant factors in adoption. Sickness, through its impact on household income and labor allocation decisions for healthcare and other activities, significantly reduces the likelihood of technology adoption. Our findings suggest that agencies working to improve agricultural productivity and land resource conservation should consider not only the financial status of potential adopters, but also their related health situation.

Policymakers are increasingly calling upon agricultural research managers to consider poverty reduction objectives when making resource allocations. The authors present a simple method to measure the impact of agricultural research on the poor. This method has the advantage that it presents the results in a manner consistent with commonly used measures of poverty. This consistency and focus should facilitate and enhance dialogue between policymakers and research managers when deciding on resource allocations and assessing impacts on poverty reduction. An illustrative application is presented using data from Malawi.

Qualitative evidence suggests that 1890 institutions play a significant role in delivering extension information to limited-resource, particularly minority, farmers. However, there is little empirical evidence of economic impacts of public investments in 1890 extension programs. This paper quantifies the economic impacts of the 2501 extension program for limited resource farmers in Virginia.

Using data from the Malawi Financial Markets and Household Food Security Survey, this paper examines the effect of access to credit from formal sources, and tobacco plot size, on cost inefficiency among Malawian smallholder tobacco cultivators. Farm-specific cost inefficiency is estimated within the framework of stochastic frontier analysis. Access to credit is measured as the sum of household members' self-reported credit limits at credit organisations, arguably a truer measure of an exogenous credit constraint than credit program participation or actual loan uptake. It is found that tobacco cultivation is significantly less cost inefficient per acre on larger plots. While access to credit by itself has no statistically discernible effect on cost inefficiency, it reduces the gain in cost efficiency from a larger plot size. © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Policymakers are increasingly calling upon agricultural research managers to consider poverty reduction objectives when making resource allocations. The authors present a simple method to measure the impact of agricultural research on the poor. This method has the advantage that it presents the results in a manner consistent with commonly used measures of poverty. This consistency and focus should facilitate and enhance dialogue between policymakers and research managers when deciding on resource allocations and assessing impacts on poverty reduction. An illustrative application is presented using data from Malawi.

Books Reviewed include: Readings in Development Economics: Volumes I and II by Pranab Bardhan and Christopher Udry; Agriculture, Trade and the Environment: The Impact of Liberalization on Sustainable Development by John M. Antle, Joseph N. Lekakis, George P. Zanias; Tradeoffs or Synergies? Agricultural Intensification, Economic Development and the Environment by David R. Lee, Christopher B. Barrett; Multilateral trade negotiations on agriculture: a resource manual

Books Reviewed include: Readings in Development Economics: Volumes I and II by Pranab Bardhan and Christopher Udry; Agriculture, Trade and the Environment: The Impact of Liberalization on Sustainable Development by John M. Antle, Joseph N. Lekakis, George P. Zanias; Tradeoffs or Synergies? Agricultural Intensification, Economic Development and the Environment by David R. Lee, Christopher B. Barrett; Multilateral trade negotiations on agriculture: a resource manual

Recent public cash assistance reform measures designed to induce recipients to leave welfare and enter the workforce represent the most important change in social welfare policy in recent decades. Single female-headed families with children (SFHFwC), who represent 53 percent of non-metropolitan families with children living below the poverty line, are the major target group of reform measures. Recent studies have expressed concerns that heads of SFHFwC may face particular difficulties in transiting from welfare to work in non-metropolitan areas due to relatively weak demand for low skill female labor, greater childcare and transportation barriers to workforce participation, and economies of scale in the delivery of public programs to assist in transition. Despite these concerns, non-metropolitan SFHFwC have shown significant improvements in a number of economic indicators of family welfare since the initial implementation of reforms. However, the underlying causes of economic gains, and the relationship between gains and reform measures, remains unclear. This paper examines shifts from 1993 to 1999 in the distribution of real per-capita total receipts of non-metropolitan and metropolitan area SFHFwC with data from the U.S. Current Population Survey Annual Demographic Files. Nonparametric density estimates reveal a significant positive rightward shift in the per-capita distribution of total receipts of non-metropolitan SFHFwC occurred from 1993 to 1999. These gains are largely attributable to a rightward shift in the distribution of the earnings portion of total per-capita receipts, as the public assistance component of total receipts shifted leftward over the same period. The contributions of structural change in workforce welfare participation as well as underlying individual and area attribute shifts, are then examined using nonparametric density re-weighting methods. Specifically, five counterfactual experiments are conducted. The first experiment simulates the counterfactual distribution of non-metropolitan 1999 per-capita total receipts if the frequency of workforce welfare participation states in the 1999 data were at 1993 levels, but the distribution of per-capita receipts within each of four possible states of workforce and welfare participation remained at 1999 levels. The second counterfactual density simulates the 1999 non-metropolitan area distribution of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed if structural relationships between workforce welfare participation decisions and area and individual attributes were at 1993 levels, but area and individual attributes remained at 1999 levels. The third counterfactual experiment simulates the 1999 distribution of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed with both the 1993 structural relationship between workforce welfare participation and area and individual attributes and 1993 area and individual attribute levels. The fourth counterfactual experiment simulates 1999 distributions of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed if area unemployment and individual attributes in each workforce welfare state remained at 1993 levels, but the distribution of workforce welfare states were at 1999 levels. The final counterfactual density presents the 1999 per-capita receipts distribution that would have prevailed with 1999 workforce welfare participation rates arising from 1993 levels of unemployment in non-metropolitan areas. These experiments suggest that structural change in the relationship between area and individual attributes and workforce welfare program participation decisions from 1993 to 1999 accounts for only a small portion of observed shifts in total per-capita receipts. Changes in individual and area attributes, by contrast, account for much of the observed rightward shift in non-metropolitan per-capita total receipts from 1993 to 1999. Further, SFHFwC economic gains appear to arise from increased education levels and other individual attribute shifts, rather than more favorable area economic conditions. Gains should, therefore, be relatively resilient to future area economic downturns.

Recent public cash assistance reform measures designed to induce recipients to leave welfare and enter the workforce represent the most important change in social welfare policy in recent decades. Single female-headed families with children (SFHFwC), who represent 53 percent of non-metropolitan families with children living below the poverty line, are the major target group of reform measures. Recent studies have expressed concerns that heads of SFHFwC may face particular difficulties in transiting from welfare to work in non-metropolitan areas due to relatively weak demand for low skill female labor, greater childcare and transportation barriers to workforce participation, and economies of scale in the delivery of public programs to assist in transition. Despite these concerns, non-metropolitan SFHFwC have shown significant improvements in a number of economic indicators of family welfare since the initial implementation of reforms. However, the underlying causes of economic gains, and the relationship between gains and reform measures, remains unclear. This paper examines shifts from 1993 to 1999 in the distribution of real per-capita total receipts of non-metropolitan and metropolitan area SFHFwC with data from the U.S. Current Population Survey Annual Demographic Files. Nonparametric density estimates reveal a significant positive rightward shift in the per-capita distribution of total receipts of non-metropolitan SFHFwC occurred from 1993 to 1999. These gains are largely attributable to a rightward shift in the distribution of the earnings portion of total per-capita receipts, as the public assistance component of total receipts shifted leftward over the same period. The contributions of structural change in workforce welfare participation as well as underlying individual and area attribute shifts, are then examined using nonparametric density re-weighting methods. Specifically, five counterfactual experiments are conducted. The first experiment simulates the counterfactual distribution of non-metropolitan 1999 per-capita total receipts if the frequency of workforce welfare participation states in the 1999 data were at 1993 levels, but the distribution of per-capita receipts within each of four possible states of workforce and welfare participation remained at 1999 levels. The second counterfactual density simulates the 1999 non-metropolitan area distribution of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed if structural relationships between workforce welfare participation decisions and area and individual attributes were at 1993 levels, but area and individual attributes remained at 1999 levels. The third counterfactual experiment simulates the 1999 distribution of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed with both the 1993 structural relationship between workforce welfare participation and area and individual attributes and 1993 area and individual attribute levels. The fourth counterfactual experiment simulates 1999 distributions of per-capita receipts that would have prevailed if area unemployment and individual attributes in each workforce welfare state remained at 1993 levels, but the distribution of workforce welfare states were at 1999 levels. The final counterfactual density presents the 1999 per-capita receipts distribution that would have prevailed with 1999 workforce welfare participation rates arising from 1993 levels of unemployment in non-metropolitan areas. These experiments suggest that structural change in the relationship between area and individual attributes and workforce welfare program participation decisions from 1993 to 1999 accounts for only a small portion of observed shifts in total per-capita receipts. Changes in individual and area attributes, by contrast, account for much of the observed rightward shift in non-metropolitan per-capita total receipts from 1993 to 1999. Further, SFHFwC economic gains appear to arise from increased education levels and other individual attribute shifts, rather than more favorable area economic conditions. Gains should, therefore, be relatively resilient to future area economic downturns.