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The ubiquity and durability of lithic artifacts inform archaeologists about important dimensions of human behavioral variability. Despite their importance, lithic artifacts can be problematic to study because lithic analysts differ widely in their theoretical approaches and the data they collect. The extent to which differences in lithic data relate to prehistoric behavioral variability or differences between archaeologists today remains incompletely known. We address this issue with the most extensive lithic replicability study yet, involving 11 analysts, 100 unmodified flakes, and 38 ratio, discrete, and nominal attributes. We use mixture models to show strong inter-analyst replicability scores on several attributes, making them well suited to comparative lithic analyses. Based on our results, we highlight 17 attributes that we consider reliable for compiling datasets collected by different individuals for comparative studies. Demonstrating this replicability is a crucial first step in tackling more general problems of data comparability in lithic analysis and lithic analyst's ability to conduct large-scale meta-analyses. The CoMSAfrica Project Methods and Materials - The Flake Attributes - The Flake Assemblage - Statistical Methods Results - Are Some Attributes More Replicable Than Others? - Does Limiting the Number of Potential Attribute States Impact Inter-Analyst Replicability? - Do Specific Flake Characteristics Impact Inter-Analyst Replicability? - Does the Inclusion of Images in Definitions Impact Inter-Analyst Replicability? - Do Differences in Lithic Flaking Systems Impact Inter-Analyst Replicability? - Does an Analyst’s Experience and Quantitative Training Impact Inter-Analyst Replicability? Discussion - Why Do Certain Attributes Show Lower Inter-Analyst Replicability Scores and How Can Comparability Be Increased? - Do Differences in Lithic Flaking Systems Impact Inter-Analyst Replicability? - How Do Our Results Compare to Prior Inter-Analyst Replicability Lithic Studies? - Limitations and Recommendations Conclusions

Cet article a pour objectif de contribuer à une meilleure compréhension du contexte historique et scientifique dans lequel les premières recherches sur la préhistoire égyptienne se sont développées. En particulier, il explore dans quelle mesure la construction de la préhistoire en tant que discipline en Égypte a été influencée par le modèle européen de préhistoire au début du XXe siècle à partir de deux études de cas, les travaux de Paul Bovier–Lapierre dans la région de l’Abbassieh, près du Caire, et les travaux d’Edmond Vignard dans la région de Kom Ombo. Influences of the European model of prehistory in Egypt at the beginning of the 20th century: the works of Father Paul Bovier–Lapierre, S. J. (1873–1950) and Edmond Vignard (1885–1969)] This article aims to contribute to a better understanding of the historical and scientific context of the development of early research in the prehistory of Egypt. In particular, it explores to what extent the construction of prehistory as a field in Egypt at the beginning of the 20th century has been influenced by the European model of prehistory, by focusing on two case studies, which are the works of Paul Bovier– Lapierre in the Abbassieh region, near Cairo, and the works of Edmond Vignard in the Kom Ombo region.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Cultural Evolution Society for funding this workshop. Additional costs were covered by funds made available by the Danish Agency for Higher Education and Science (project COMPARCH, Grant Number 1113-00015B). David N. Matzig and Felix Riede's contributions are part of CLIOARCH, an ERC Consolidator Grant project funded by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Grant Agreement No. 817564). Mercedes Okumura's research is funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP, Grant No. 2018/23282-5). Astolfo G. M. Araujo's research is funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP, Grant No. 2019/18664-9). Renata P. Araujo's research is funded by a doctoral grant from Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, Grant No. 142353/2019-1). Alice Leplongeon's research is funded by a postdoctoral grant from the Research Foundation in Flanders (FWO #12U9220N). José R. Rabuñal is supported by Margarita Salas fellowship (MARSALAS21-22) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Universities, the European Union-Next Generation EU and the University of Alicante. The authors also thank the Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies for hosting all participants during this event.

Research on the northeastern African Stone Age is intrinsically linked to the study of human occupation along the Nile, which flows north through the now hyper-arid eastern Sahara to meet the Mediterranean, forming a natural route toward the Sinai Peninsula. Since this is the only land bridge between Africa and Eurasia, the region is often referred to as a “corridor,” with the hypothesis that the Nile Valley may have repeatedly acted as a possible route used by hominins out of (and back into) Africa guiding many research projects on the Stone Age of this region. However, past human occupation of northeastern Africa is far from restricted to the Nile Valley and includes evidence from areas that are now desert on either side of the Nile, as well as the Red Sea Mountains. Throughout the Pleistocene (2.58–0.01 Ma), the region was subject to climatic and environmental fluctuations that may have alternately rendered the desert habitable or the Nile Valley inhospitable for hominin settlement. Researchers have used both European and African terminologies to describe the northeastern African Stone Age record. In particular, the terms Early Stone Age and Middle Stone Age are often used for earlier phases, but Upper Paleolithic, Late Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic, and Mesolithic are commonly used for the later phases. Evidence for the Earliest Stone Age is sparse, but numerous sites are attributed to the later part of the Early Stone Age, the Late Acheulean, after c. 0.6 Ma. The Middle Stone Age is known by many surface scatters of lithic assemblages and few stratified sites, sometimes associated with raw material extraction features. Only a few sites document the Upper Paleolithic in the region, whereas a rich archaeological record documents the hunter-gatherer-fisher societies of the Late Paleolithic. While Acheulean and Middle Stone Age sites are located in the desert areas as well as the Nile Valley, for the later periods until the beginning of the Holocene, c. 12 ka, sites are mainly restricted to the Nile Valley. The study of the northeastern African Stone Age reveals complex human-environment interactions with implications for the potential central role of this region in hominin dispersals out of and back into Africa during the Pleistocene.

Alors qu’une grande partie du continent africain révèle d’importants vestiges du Middle Stone Age témoignant de l’émergence et de la diffusion d’Homo sapiens sur le continent dès le Pléistocène moyen, les connaissances sur le rôle du bassin du Congo dans les dynamiques de peuplement continentales et régionales restent pauvres. La rare préservation des vestiges osseux et de la stratigraphie sur les sites pléistocènes de plein air est souvent considérée comme le principal écueil. Mais, près d’un siècle après la création du premier faciès culturel préhistorique régional de l’Afrique centrale, celui de la Tumbakultur, le bilan historiographique du Middle Stone Age du bassin du Congo suggère que la nomenclature, la diversité méthodologique des approches sur les pierres taillées et la fragmentation des savoirs et des collections préhistoriques sont autant de facteurs à prendre en compte afin de déployer de nouvelles perspectives de recherches en préhistoire. A large part of Africa recently revealed important Middle Stone Age remains arguing for the emergence and spread of Homo sapiens on the African continent as early as the Middle Pleistocene. However, our knowledge of the role of the Congo Basin in continental and regional population dynamics remains misunderstood. The poor preservation of bone remains and chrono-stratigraphic contexts of Pleistocene open-air sites is often considered to be the main obstacles of Stone Age studies in Central Africa. Nearly a century after the creation of the first prehistoric cultural facies in Central Africa, the Tumbakultur, this paper goes through the history of the Congo Basin Middle Stone Age. We suggest that nomenclature, variability of approaches on lithic assemblages, the fragmentation of knowledge and dispersion of prehistoric collections are all factors which must be taken into account in order to develop new perspectives for future Stone Age research program in the Congo Basin.

A selection of papers presented at the Special Session 8 ‘Using multivariate analyses to interpret lithic variability: Contributions and limitations’ held during the 2018 MetroArchaeo conference (22-24 October 2018, Cassino, Italy) is published in the Journal of Lithic Studies. Multivariate statistical analyses are increasingly used to discern patterns of variability in archaeological materials and help with their interpretation. Commonly used ones include Principal Component Analysis, Multiple Correspondence Analysis, Discriminant Analysis, Multiple Regression, General Linear Model, or Cluster Analysis, applied in various contexts of study: geometric morphometrics, spatial analysis or inter-assemblage comparisons.

Backed pieces became widespread in the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene and are part of the classic definitions for the Later Stone Age in many parts of Africa. However, the association of backed pieces with Later Stone Age is not clear in the Horn of Africa. These pieces are present in both Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) contexts. To what extent was the “backing phenomenon” homogeneous or diverse between and within the two periods? Here, we start with a review of the literature on backed pieces in the Horn of Africa, noting the lack of terminological consensus and the absence of a shared typology in the region. We then describe the variability of backed pieces using two complementary approaches: (1) multivariate statistical analysis on a set of 28 attributes of 188 artifacts from eight securely dated contexts and (2) 2D geometric morphometric analyses on the same dataset. The two approaches provide complementary results, which allow us to identify and discuss the chronological trends in backing technology and morphology, without introducing a new terminology or proposing a new formal “descriptive” typology.

The end of the Pleistocene (~75-15 ka) is a key period for the prehistory of the Nile Valley. The climatic fluctuations documented during this period have led human populations from the Middle and Late Palaeolithic to adapt to a changing Nile. In particular, the global shift to more arid conditions regionally translated into the expansion of the Sahara, the lowering of sea levels and the desiccation of some major eastern African lakes. These climatically-induced environmental changes influenced the behaviour of the Nile – although how exactly is still debated – and its role as an ecological refugium for human populations living in its vicinity. Genetic and fossil evidence highlight a strong population substructure in Africa during this period, suggesting the alternation of phases of major dispersals of modern humans within the continent, as well as out-of and back-into Africa, with phases of relative isolation of populations, which might be linked to the creation of environmental refugia during the climatic fluctuations of this period. Understanding to what extent the technological variability observed in north-eastern Africa between 75,000 and 15,000 years ago is linked to environmental changes and/or possible contacts between different human populations is critical in this context. The best-preserved evidence for past human behavior are archaeological assemblages, most often lithic assemblages. However, the use of different terminologies, whether they refer to cultural or techno-typological entities, hampers any systematic comparison between the Nile Valley on one hand and neighbouring regions on the other hand. An outcome of this practice is the artificial ‘isolation’ of the north-eastern African record from its neighbouring regions. This monograph groups together chapters presenting updated reviews and new data on regional archaeological, palaeoenvironmental, palaeoanthropological and geological records from north-eastern Africa, North Africa, the Levant and eastern Africa for the period ranging from 75,000 to 15,000 years ago. While north-eastern Africa, and the Nile Valley in particular, is generally considered as one of the main possible routes of migrations out of Africa, few recent studies allow the data from this region to be viewed from a macro-regional perspective. This book allows the exploration of topical issues, such as modern humans’ capacity for adaptation, particularly in the context of climate change, as well as population interactions and human dispersals in the past, taking a multidisciplinary approach.

International audience

This workshop was supported by a DM McDonald Grant from the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research (Cambridge, UK) and by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 655459.

Spatial and temporal variation among African Middle Stone Age (MSA) archeological assemblages provide essential cultural and behavioral data for understanding the origin, evolution, diversification, and dispersal of Homo sapiens—and, possibly, interactions with other hominin taxa. However, incorporating archeological data into a robust framework suited to replicable, quantitative analyses that can be integrated with observations drawn from studies of the human genome, hominin morphology, and paleoenvironmental contexts requires the development of a unified comparative approach and shared units of analysis. The CoMSAfrica workshop presented here, has the ambition to build bridges between researchers and research regions in Africa on these paramount topics.

This research project has received funding from the European Union’s horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska Curie grant agreement No 655459 and the Agence Nationale Pour la Recherche (ANR-14-CE31-0023).

The Late Pleistocene is a key period to understand the shift from the Middle ( MSA ) to the Late Stone Age ( LSA ) in Africa. More generally, it is also a crucial time for elucidation of changes in the technological behaviours of human populations in Africa after the main Out of Africa event of modern humans ca. 60-50 thousand years ago. However, the archaeological record for this period is relatively poor, particularly for the Horn of Africa. Here we present a detailed analysis of the lithic assemblages from Goda Buticha ( GB ), a cave in southeastern Ethiopia, which has yielded a long stratigraphic sequence including Late Pleistocene and Holocene levels. This study (1) contributes to a better knowledge of the late MSA in the Horn of Africa; (2) documents a late Holocene LSA level ( GB – Complex I ); (3) highlights the presence of MSA characteristics associated with LSA features in the Holocene ( GB – Layer II c). This adds to the emerging record of great lithic technological variability during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene in this region.Le Pleistocene recent est une periode cle pour comprendre le changement du Middle ( MSA ) vers le Late Stone Age ( LSA ) en Afrique. Plus generalement, c’est une periode-cle pour comprendre les changements dans les comportements techniques des populations humaines en Afrique, apres l’episode principal Out of Africa des Hommes modernes, ca 60-50 ka. Cependant, les donnees archeologiques pour cette periode sont relativement rares, particulierement pour la Corne de l’Afrique. Nous presentons ici une analyse detaillee des assemblages lithiques de la grotte de Goda Buticha ( GB ), situee pres de Dire-Dawa, en Ethiopie, et qui a livre une longue sequence stratigraphique incluant des niveaux dates du Pleistocene recent et de l’Holocene. Cette etude (1) contribue a une meilleure connaissance du MSA recent de la Corne de l’Afrique; (2) decrit un niveau LSA de l’Holocene recent ( GB – complexe I ); (3) souligne la presence de caracteristiques MSA associees a des traits LSA tres tard dans l’Holocene ( GB – couche II c). Ces nouvelles donnees attestent de la grande variabilite technique au Pleistocene recent et a l’Holocene dans cette region.This article is in English.

Goda Buticha is a cave site near Dire Dawa in southeastern Ethiopia that contains an archaeological sequence sampling the late Pleistocene and Holocene of the region. The sedimentary sequence displays complex cultural, chronological and sedimentological histories that seem incongruent with one another. A first set of radiocarbon ages suggested a long sedimentological gap from the end of Marine Isotopic Stage (MIS) 3 to the mid-Holocene. Macroscopic observations suggest that the main sedimentological change does not coincide with the chronostratigraphic hiatus. The cultural sequence shows technological continuity with a late persistence of artifacts that are usually attributed to the Middle Stone Age into the younger parts of the stratigraphic sequence, yet become increasingly associated with lithic artifacts typically related to the Later Stone Age. While not a unique case, this combination of features is unusual in the Horn of Africa. In order to evaluate the possible implications of these observations, sedimentological analyses combined with optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) were conducted. The OSL data now extend the radiocarbon chronology up to 63 ± 7 ka; they also confirm the existence of the chronological gap between 24.8 ± 2.6 ka and 7.5 ± 0.3 ka. The sedimentological analyses suggest that the origin and mode of deposition were largely similar throughout the whole sequence, although the anthropic and faunal activities increased in the younger levels. Regional climatic records are used to support the sedimentological observations and interpretations. We discuss the implications of the sedimentological and dating analyses for understanding cultural processes in the region., This research benefited from funding of the National Geographic Society (http:// nationalgeographic.org/), grants # 8110-06 and 8510-08 (ZA), of the Wenner-Gren Foundation (http://www.wennergren.org/), grant # ICRG e 102, (ZA and DP), of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (http://new.huji.ac.il/en) (EH), of the French National Research Agency (http://www.agence-nationale-recherche.fr), projects # ANR-09- JCJC-0123-01 (CT), # ANR-14-CE31-0023-03, and # ANR-10-LABX-52, of the Regional Priority Program « Heritage, Resources, Governance » (HEREGO, coordinated by the Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement) (DP), the Doctoral School of the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris (France) and UMR CNRS 7194 (AL), the Smithsonian NMNH small grants, and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie SklodowskaCurie grant (https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/ horizon2020/en/h2020-section/marie-sklodowskacurie-actions), agreement #655459. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

For more than a century, Senegal has yielded abundant Palaeolithic finds, in particular on the Atlantic coast as well as in the Faleme Valley, but the lack of reliable and integrated chrono-cultural data has limited the possibilities of interpretation. These gaps were one of the main factors leading to the launch of a new research programme in the Faleme Valley (eastern Senegal). Its objective since 2012 has been to establish a new archaeological reference sequence in West Africa complementary to that of Ounjougou (Mali). Its more southerly location gave us the opportunity to obtain data to address the issue of human settlement and mobility in relation to changes in aridity and the position of the South-Saharan limit, along the north-south axis of the Faleme Valley. Field survey enabled the identification of a very large number of sites, some in primary context, thus confirming the potential of the region. Geomorphological analysis and initial chronological results indicate relatively continuous and fairly complex deposition, with the alternation of fine-grained and coarser deposits, in particular for Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 3 and 2. From an archaeological viewpoint, while artefacts attributed to very early periods (prior to isotope stages 4/5) were found in reworked contexts, several MIS 2, or even MIS 3 occupations up to the early Holocene (Ravin des Guepiers, Fatandi, Toumboura, Missira), attracted significant attention. These sites provide complete, precise and reliable information. They contain assemblages using different techniques of production, which raise questions regarding cultural rhythms and changes, and show evidence of populations present during the hyperarid “Ogolian”, during which the Ounjougou sequence has a major sedimentary and archaeological hiatus for this period.

Recent studies have shown that the Falémé Valley, located in eastern Senegal, is a major component in the com- prehension of the West African Palaeolithic period. Several of the sites discovered in this region show a wide va- riety of lithic productions attributed to the Early, Middle and Later Stone Age. Optically stimulated luminescence dating of 16 samples coming from five sites produces evidence of archaeolog- ical records from at least Marine Isotope Stage 5, highlighting an ancient human presence. The dates also indicate nearly continuous sedimentary deposits over the entire upper Pleistocene. In particular, at least one archaeolog- ical level is positioned within Marine Isotope Stage 2, which is poorly documented in West Africa. Thus interest- ingly, the Falémé sequence completes the sequence of Ounjougou in Mali, which was considered up to now as the unique key element for the definition of the chrono-cultural framework of this region.

Between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and 2, Northeast Africa witnessed migrations of Homo sapiens into Eurasia. Within the context of the aridification of the Sahara, the Nile Valley probably offered a very attractive corridor into Eurasia. This region and this period are therefore central for the (pre)history of the out-of-Africa peopling of modern humans. However, there are very few sites from the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic that document these migration events. In Egypt, the site of Nazlet Khater 4 (NK4), which is related to ancient H. sapiens quarrying activities, is one of them. Its lithic assemblage shows an important laminar component, and this, associated with its chronological position (ca. 33 ka), means that the site is the most ancient Upper Palaeolithic sites of this region. The detailed study of the Nazlet Khater 4 lithic material shows that blade production (volumetric reduction) is also associated with flake production (surface reduction). This technological duality addresses the issue of direct attribution of NK4 to the Upper Palaeolithic.

Microliths and microlithic industries are central to definitions of the Later Stone Age technologies. It is generally accepted that microliths are associated with a change to more complex hunting technologies and strategies. However, because there is evidence of microlith production in Middle Stone Age contexts, there are debates regarding the significance of the presence of microliths within an assemblage. This paper aims to analyse the microlithic component of Middle and Later Stone Age assemblages in the eastern Ethiopia region, by means of lithic assemblages from two major cave sites, Porc-Epic and Goda Buticha. This paper presents a short review of the different meanings of the term “microlith” and of the diversity of microlith-bearing assemblages in the Middle and Later Stone Age in sub-Saharan Africa. An analysis of the microliths is presented using a methodology which helps to distinguish intentionally produced versus accidentally produced microliths, from Porc-Epic and Goda Buticha assemblages. The results of this study indicate that no intentional microliths are present in Porc-Epic assemblages, in contrast with those recovered in the Goda Buticha assemblages. Interestingly, very few microliths are present in the Pleistocene Middle Stone Age levels; they are more numerous (but not overwhelmingly) in the Holocene Later Stone Age levels of these sites. These results contribute to the discussion of the role of microliths in the Middle and in the Later Stone Age in this particular region of eastern Ethiopia.

International audience; Between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and 2, Northeast Africa witnessed migrations of Homo sapiens into Eurasia. Within the context of the aridification of the Sahara, the Nile Valley probably offered a very attractive corridor into Eurasia. This region and this period are therefore central for the (pre)history of the out-of-Africa peopling of modern humans. However, there are very few sites from the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic that document these migration events. In Egypt, the site of Nazlet Khater 4 (NK4), which is related to ancient H. sapiens quarrying activities, is one of them. Its lithic assemblage shows an important laminar component, and this, associated with its chronological position (ca. 33 ka), means that the site is the most ancient Upper Palaeolithic sites of this region. The detailed study of the Nazlet Khater 4 lithic material shows that blade production (volumetric reduction) is also associated with flake production (surface reduction). This technological duality addresses the issue of direct attribution of NK4 to the Upper Palaeolithic.; Entre les MIS 4 et 2, l’Afrique du Nord-Est est le théâtre de migrations d’Homo sapiens vers l’Eurasie. Dans le contexte d’une aridification importante du Sahara, la Vallée du Nil a probablement joué le rôle de corridor très attrayant. Cette région et cette période sont donc clés dans la (pré)histoire des peuplements extra-africains de l’Homme moderne. Cependant, très peu de sites du début du Paléolithique supérieur les documentent. En Égypte, Nazlet Khater 4, site d’occupation lié à des activités d’extraction de matière première est un de ces très rares gisements. L’assemblage lithique révèle une composante laminaire importante, qui, associée à sa position chronologique, en fait le plus ancien site Paléolithique supérieur de la région. Néanmoins, son étude détaillée montre que la production de lames est aussi associée à une exploitation de surface. Et cette dualité technologique de poser la question de son attribution directe au Paléolithique supérieur.