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The characterization of petrified wood provides valuable information about paleoclimatology and geological history and helps to reconstruct the past forest flora of different parts of the earth. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the anatomical characteristics of fossil wood of the Miocene age collected from the Manchar Formation exposed at Thano Bula Khan, Sindh, Pakistan. In order to carry out a detailed anatomical investigation, three-dimensional sections were prepared using a petrotome. The microscopic analysis allowed us to study vessel size and arrangement, wood parenchyma, fibers, and xylem rays. Based on the comparison between recent and fossil wood, we concluded that the investigated characters are comparable with those of the genus Atalantia Corrêa of the Rutaceae family. Therefore, it was named as Atalantioxylon thanobolensis sp. nov. with reference to the location of Thano Bula Khan from which the fossil wood was collected.

This work is focusing on the synthesis and application of new potential ionic liquids (ILs) for biodiesel production from waste palm cooking oil. For this propose total eleven ionic liquids were synthesized containing various types of cations and anions and characterized with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and elemental analyser (CHNS). The Hammett acidity of the ionic liquids were determined using Ultraviolet (UV) visible spectrometer and correlated with their catalytic properties. The process of biodiesel preparation has been optimized with respect of different factors (catalysts concentrations, methanol to oil ratio, temperature, agitation speed and time) affecting the transesterification reaction. The highest yield of 96.25% for 3-methyl-1-(4-sulfo-butyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium trifluoromethanesulfonate [BSMIM][CF3SO3] was obtained under optimal conditions. The obtained product was characterized using gas chromatography (GC), NMR, FTIR, Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) techniques. The physicochemical properties like kinematic viscosity, flash point, density etc were determined and compared with the standard of American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) and European Standard (EN) methods. The by-product of reaction i.e. glycerol was further esterified to minimize the waste of glycerol. The kinetic study shows that the transesterification reaction catalysed by prepared ILs follow the pseudo-first order reaction. The kinetic energy (Ea) of the reaction was calculated around 19.89 kJ/mol.

Pakistan being an underdeveloped country is facing several problems. One of the most important problems of the country has been Energy crises. Pakistan has very rich resources of renewable energy which are yet to be utilized. Among these renewable energy resources, energy from sun is one of the most abundant one. Concentrated Solar power CSP is considered to be the best technology to generate electricity for solar energy. Design of a CSP plant with a capacity of 100 MW using Linear Fresnel Reflectors and integrated with thermal energy storage of six hour is proposed in this paper. A location near Nawabshah receiving direct normal irradiance (DNI) of 1955 KWh/m2/year is selected on the basis of CSP plant requirements. System advisor model (SAM) selected for carrying out the simulation of the proposed plant for one year. Heat transfer fluid is molten salt known as Hitec solar Salt instead of using synthetic oil. From simulation results it was found that the plant can generate 220,734,832 kWh (220.735 GWh) of electricity annually. The capacity factor and gross to net conversion were found to be 25.2% and 90% respectively. These results obtained are encouraging and justify that a plant based on the proposed model is thermodynamically feasible in Pakistani environment.

In this study inter-laminar shear strength of basalt-carbon hybrid composite was investigated experimentally and numerically. The finite element model was generated in ANSYS® software. The main aim of this paper was to determine the influence of fiber orientation on interlaminar shear strength, and to estimate the interlaminar shear strength of angle ply oriented basalt-carbon hybrid composite laminates. The tested specimens with varying orientations were prepared using hand lay-up technique. Short beam shear test under three point bending was performed through ASTM D2344. The input data for finite element analysis was obtained from three point bending test. Numerical results obtained from ANSYS showed good correlation with experimental results. From the obtained results of experimental and FEA analysis the effect of fiber orientation was proved on interlaminar shear strength of basalt-carbon hybrid composite laminates.

In this study, the focus was on the optimum design of laminate stacking sequences (LSS) of basalt fiber reinforced composite (BFRP) structure. Eleven rectangular composite panels with different stacking sequences and fiber orientations were analyzed. A three-point flexural test according to ASTM D790 was carried out in ANSYS to simulate the basalt fiber reinforced composite layup flexural strength. From the results, it was found that the composite structure layup of [0/0/45/0/0]shas the highest strength among all samples.

In this paper the influence of fiber orientation of basalt and carbon inter-ply fabrics on the flexural properties of hybrid composite laminates was experimentally investigated. Four types of basalt/carbon/epoxy inter-ply hybrid composite laminates with varying angle ply orientation of reinforced basalt fiber and fixed orientation of carbon fiber were fabricated using hand lay-up technique. Three point bending test was performed according to ASTM 7264. The fracture surface analysis was carried out by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The results obtained from the four laminates were compared. Lay-up pattern of (0B/+30B/-30B/0C)S exhibits the best properties in terms of flexural strength and flexural modulus. Scanning electron microscopy results on the fracture surface showed that the interfacial de-bonding between the fibers and epoxy resin is a dominant fracture mode for all fiber lay-up schemes.

Wind turbine blades are the major structural element and highest cost component in the wind power system. Modern wind turbine blade sizes are increasing, and the driving motivation behind this is to increase the efficiency and energy output per unit rotor area, and to reduce the cost per kilowatt hour. However due to the increase in size the material selection for wind turbine has become critical and complex. To achieve the desired materials to improve the design of wind turbine blades several factors such as high fatigue strength, less weight, less cost and potential of recycling must be focused. Basalt fiber is a relative newcomer to fiber reinforced polymers and structural composites. Basalt fiber with their excellent mechanical properties represents an interesting alternative composite material for modern wind turbine blades. Some manufacturers claim that basalt fiber has similar or better properties than S-2 glass fiber and its cheaper than carbon fiber. Basalt fiber together with carbon fiber are the most advanced and interesting area of hybrid technologies. This paper reviews extra ordinary properties of basalt fiber over other fiber reinforced composites and highlight how the basalt special properties together with carbon fiber will reduce the weight and cost of wind turbine blades while improving their performance. This paper also demonstrates why the basalt carbon hybrid composite material will be an ideal alternative for the wind turbine rotor blades.

Heavy metals in municipal wastewater are of utmost concern for researchers and environmental agencies due to their adverse effect to the ecosystem. Various technologies were practiced for the removal of heavy metals; however, adsorption is one the most interesting technique for its low cost, simple operation and reasonable efficiency. In this study, removal of Zinc (II) from municipal wastewater in Quetta city of Pakistan was investigated by using activated carbon (AC) developed from Rice Husk (RH) and Kikar Charcoal (KC). Char were made by heating KC and RH in a tubular reactor at 700 oC under N2 gas flow. Furthermore, Char material obtained were activated using H2SO4 as an activating agent to increase the surface area and porosity of the char materials. The biochar adsorbents were characterized using SEM, EDX and BET techniques. To identify the efficiency of adsorbents, the wastewater samples collected from Shahbaz town area of Quetta city were treated using different particle size of AC (180 and 300 µm) and varying adsorbate dose (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.7 g/50 mL), pH of the solution (3, 4, 5, 6, 7), respectively. The results showed that increase in the mass of adsorbents had a direct relation with the removal efficiency of Zn(II). The maximum removal efficiency for zinc (II) was found to be 99 % and 72.34 % for KC and RH based ACs at adsorbent dose 0.7 g/50mL and pH 6, respectively. A small difference has been observed between the efficiencies of both ACs this was due to the difference between their surface area and porosity. While studying isotherm models the data was best fit with Langmuir isotherm model. The amount of zinc in the treated wastewater was recorded well enough under the standard limits provided by Environmental protection agency (EPA). This technique of treating municipal wastewater by using inexpensive biomass as adsorbent found to be very efficient and environmental friendly.

Produced Natural Gas from the low permeability tight shale reservoirs are called as Shale Gas, has a great importance in economic terms of supply and demand because of natural gas prices. Shale is composed of a rock having sedimentary of clastic nature that contains mudstone and siltstone under the specific reservoir conditions of pressure and temperature are called Shale gas. Shales are of the soft nature formation that formed due to pre-existing rocks which have been elated, worn out and transported into a new form of rock. Shale is found in reservoir rock where organic material migrated upward and in areas where conventional clays are normally present. Shale is known as unconventional energy source. Due to high demand in population rate and increasing consumption of natural gas in transportation sector it is challenging for Pakistan to meet the energy requirements and needs in utilizing both conventional and unconventional energy resources. In this research study, the set of data, tools and methodology applied to estimate initial gas in place (IGIP), recoverable reserves, recovery factor, and risk analysis of shale gas reservoirs. The study reveals potential and characteristics of shale reservoir to grade the areas in term of shale thickness, its hydrocarbon generation potential, current depth and maturity for shale gas exploitation.

The world is facing the energy crises and environmental issues in this century due to increased industrialization and overuse of natural resources for energy such as fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels generates greenhouse gases which aggravate the global warming. Researchers across the world are focusing on renewable, less CO2 and NOx emissions fuels. These fuels are important for sustainability and green economy. Biodiesel production from Algae is emerged as the promising alternative fuel, technically and environmentally acceptable and easily available. In this study, different parameters of the oil extraction process from algae biomass were studied. Samples of algal species Spirogyra were collected from Chashma Achuzai, Quetta, Pakistan and employed as a feedstock for biodiesel production. Oil from macroalgae Spirogyra was extracted using n-Hexane as a solvent. Effects of n-Hexane to oil ratio, size of algal biomass and contact time on the percentage yield of extracted oil was studied and analyzed. It was concluded that maximum amount of oil was extracted from Spirogyra by using a greater ratio of solvent to algal biomass, maximum contact time, smaller algal biomass size.

Pakistan has large resources of sugarcane crops coupled with significant amount of molasses generated annually. In this study, the effects of enzyme zymase concentration (2-5 g/l), pH (5.5-6), aeration rate (0.1-0.2 vvm/l) and agitation speed (250-300rpm) were investigated for ethanol production. Saccharomy cesservisae was used as a biocatalyst. The maximum ethanol production of 82g/l was obtained at 0.2vvm/l, pH5.5, 300rpm and 35°C at 4g/l of enzyme. This study suggests a novel method of utilizing the enzyme separately for improving ethanol production.

In this study, Basalt fiber reinforced plastic (BFRP) wind turbine blade was analyzed and compared with Glass fiber reinforced plastic blade (GFRP). Finite element analysis (FEA) of blade was carried out using ANSYS. Data for FEA was obtained by using rule of mixture. The shell element in ANSYS was used to simulate the wind turbine blade and to conduct its strength analysis. The structural analysis and comparison of blade deformations proved that BFRP wind turbine blade has better strength compared to GFRP wind turbine blade.