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The production of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) creates by-products like olive pomace, which brings environmental issues due to its strong odors and the challenges involved in storage. To address this within a circular economy framework, this study explores the potential of olive pomace as a nutrient source for earthworms, aiming to transform it into a beneficial soil amendment. Key nutrients in the pomace, such as polyphenols, sugars, and organic matter, were examined for their effectiveness in nourishing earthworms. Four distinct treatments were applied to the pomace: mechanical mixing, aeration, a combination of both, and no treatment. For a period of 30 days, chemical parameters including pH, polyphenol levels, and moisture content were monitored, while earthworm preferences were assessed at Centro Lombricoltura Toscano (CLT). The study revealed significant differences in the chemical composition of the pomace depending on the treatment, especially regarding polyphenol and total sugar content. These changes influenced the palatability for earthworms, with the combined treatment producing the most appealing pomace, likely due to the increased nutrient availability. Ultimately, olive pomace has promising potential to be repurposed into a nutrient-dense soil amendment, alleviating environmental concerns and contributing to more sustainable waste management within the olive oil industry.

This study examined the influence of malaxation temperatures on the extraction of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and its phenolic compound content, aiming to balance energy efficiency with final product quality. Extraction was tested at three temperatures of malaxation, 21 °C, 27 °C, and a gradual increase from 21 °C to 27 °C. Higher malaxation temperatures improved extraction yields and phenolic compounds. However, a gradual temperature increase produced promising results. The research found that yields like those obtained at 27 °C could be achieved using a lowered temperature of up to 6 °C for 15 min. The gradual temperature increase resulted in a 15% increase in phenolic compounds in comparison to low temperature extracted samples. The presence of beneficial aromatic compounds, such as (E)-2-hexenal, increased with higher temperatures, enhancing the fresh and fruity sensory notes of the oil. However, compounds linked to sensory defects, such as (E)-2-heptenal, increased at higher temperatures, indicating a need for careful modulation of extraction temperatures. In conclusion, adopting a gradually increasing temperature profile during malaxation represents an advantageous strategy for optimizing EVOO extraction, improving both the quality of the final product and operational efficiency, thus contributing to more sustainable and economical production.

(1) Background: Human–wildlife conflict can lead to adverse consequences for both parties, particularly in areas with a high concentration of wild ungulates. Ungulates cause frequent, severe plant damage by stripping the bark or browsing on the youngest plants. In the latter case, they damage vegetative sprouts and leaves, which can cause a delay in growth or the plant’s death. Tuscany is notable for its significant population of wild boar, which cause substantial damage to vineyards and cereal crops, costing farmers millions annually. In Tuscany, given the highly cultivated landscape of olive trees, damage has also been recorded in these plants. Balancing human and wildlife needs is crucial for minimizing damage and ensuring coexistence. (2) Methods: This study tested innovative electronic playback devices using long-range radio technology (LoRa) to deter wild ungulates and prevent crop damage. These devices use sounds and lights to induce wild animals to be afraid and thus run away from the cultivated plot to be protected. The experiment was conducted on a farm in Chianti, Tuscany, involving four plots of land planted with olive trees: in two test areas, four playback devices and four camera traps were installed, and in the two control areas, only camera traps were installed. Playback devices aimed to deter wild ungulates and camera traps aimed to test their effectiveness. Data from the camera traps were analyzed statistically and behaviorally. (3) Results: Playback devices significantly reduced wild animal activity in the equipped areas. Statistical analysis revealed that the use of acoustic–luminous deterrent devices (PDs) significantly reduced wildlife visits to the olive groves. (4) Conclusion: The study’s findings, supported by heatmaps and frequency analyses, provide insights into wildlife activity patterns and guide the development of targeted, effective wildlife management strategies.

The study aimed to investigate the feasibility of using Phase Change Materials (PCM) for temperature management during grape must fermentation, providing insights into potential energy-saving strategies in winemaking processes. The setup and procedure of fermentation tests at lab-scale with and without encapsulated PCM immersed in grape must are described. A global energy equation accounting for heat generated by fermentation and heat exchange by vessel walls was applied. fermentation with PCM shows a slower temperature increase compared to the control. While the control hits 30 °C in about 50 h, the PCM fermentation approaches this over 30 h later, peaking at 29.5 °C on average. This results in an average fermentation temperature of 24 °C with PCM versus 27 °C for the control, indicating PCM's effectiveness in absorbing fermentation heat and maintaining temperatures below the 30 °C target. Potential applications in winemaking for improved temperature management are proposed.

Chickpeas are one of the most widely consumed legumes in the world. Nevertheless, the literature is lacking studies on the effect of drying and milling processes on chickpea flour characteristics, thus motivating this work. The first aim of this work is to improve chickpea drying process through an in-depth evaluation of drying kinetics; the second aim is to assess the effects of three different moisture contents (8, 10, and 12%) and three milling speeds (120, 220, and 320 RPM) on operative milling parameters, particle size distribution, and flour composition. Our results highlight that moisture content and stone rotational speed have statistically significant effects on milling operative parameters, flour particle size, and chickpea flour composition. As stone rotational speed increases, flour temperature (∆T), average power, and damaged starch content significantly increases. On the other hand, as moisture content increases, energy consumption and specific milling energy increases, while starch and protein content significantly decrease. The results of this study recommend, for the first time in the literature, optimal values of moisture content and milling speed of chickpea. In conclusion, milling chickpeas with 10% moisture content at 320 RPM (milling speed) seems to be the best compromise between milling operative parameters, particle size, and chickpea flour composition.

Background and Aims. Rosé wines are becoming more popular, as is the demand for organic wines. However, there are few studies on the effects of operative choices on the quality and style of these wines. The paper aims to investigate the effects of the early stages of processing (destemming/crushing and pressing) on rosé wine characteristics. Methods and Results. A full factorial experiment was carried out on Sangiovese, considering two factors related to grape processing: the prepressing treatment (intact clusters or destemmed/crushed berries) and the pressing pressure. Sugars, ethanol, acidity, phenols, and color were measured in juices, while volatile compounds and sensory profiles were evaluated in wines. Destemming/crushing dramatically changed the composition of both juices and wines’; notably, acidity increased and floral and color intensities decreased in intact cluster samples. Furthermore, a clear interaction was found between prepressing treatment and pressure. Pressure, in turn, affected several acidity and color parameters. This could be related to the chemical composition and consistency of the different berry zone, which interact with the mechanical action of the destemmer/crusher and press. Conclusions. Processing choices affect all of the main qualitative features of rosé wine; they could be successfully used to decide the wine’s style and minimize the use of additives and adjuvants. Significance of the study: in rosé production, the capability to modulate the operational protocols allows selecting of different wines from the same grape batch. This represents a useful tool to optimize grape processing according to the company’s commercial priorities.

Coffee industry produces large amounts of residues, mainly associated with roasting and consumption. Among these residues, coffee silver skin (CSS) and spent coffee grounds (SCG) are the most generated. In recent years, CSS and SCG have been object of increasing attention by researchers to study their possible reuses. The growing interest in the use of natural compounds has made it possible to study these residues as a source of bioactive compounds such as caffeine (CAF) and chlorogenic acids (CGAs). Nowadays, a great variety of techniques can be used for recovering of bioactive compounds from biomasses as raw materials. However, we need to evaluate more sustainable methodologies that, for instance, do not require the use of organic solvents. Accordingly, water is often accounted as the greenest solvent because of the its non-harmful character for both environment and human health. In our study, hydrodistillation (HD) process has been tested as a green method to recover and differentiate valuable compounds from SCG and CSS. HD is a variant of steam distillation in which the matrix is in direct contact with the solvent. In the present experiment, water has been chosen as a green solvent. Basically, the HD process allows merging the autohydrolysis extraction in mild temperature conditions (about 100°C), inside the boiler, with the continuous recovery of a condensate fraction with potentially different composition than the water-extract inside the boiler. In our experiment three matrices have been used, SCG, CSS and coffee powder as benchmark. Two fractions have been obtained, the condensate fraction, recovered in condenser column, and the water-extract, i.e. a phytocomplex recovered inside boiler. The two fractions of each processed matrix were characterized and then differentiated by chemical and physical analyses (total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, oxidation-reduction potential and pH). Furthermore, compositional profiles were analyzed with HPLC technique, confirming the presence of compounds of interest such as caffeine and chlorogenic acids. In conclusion, the HD process allowed us to obtain two different fractions with different chemical and physical features, depending on the coffee residues (SCG and CSS). This could allow for a wider spectrum of possible uses of coffee residues available to the interested industry.

The overall quality of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) strictly relates to the evolution of its oxidative state, which in turn depends on the amount of the oxygen availability during the product life, starting with the olive fruit milling. The issue of oil oxygenation during processing has been poorly studied. The few available literature assesses the relative contribution of three main processing steps (paste malaxation, decanter centrifugation, and vertical centrifugation) to the final dissolved oxygen concentration and the consequences on the oil quality decay during storage. Nevertheless, until now information about the contribution of the devices used to moves materials during processing, i.e. screw conveyor and pumps to move olive, olive paste and oil, to the amount of dissolved oxygen and in broader terms on the oil quality, are lacking. It can be reasonably assumed that the intact drupes handling during leaf-removal and washing before crushing, had a negligible effect on the final oil dissolved oxygen content, whereas from crusher to the decanter centrifuge by the malaxer, where olive paste handling occurs, a noticeable effect on the future oil characteristics could occur. The standard and widespread device used to move olive paste during processing, essentially from the crusher to the malaxer and from the malaxer to the decanter centrifuge, is the progressive cavity pump, commonly named mono-pump. Notices of other pumping devices used or proved in EVOO mills are missing. In the present work a peristaltic pump (roller pump) has been tested in comparison to the conventional mono-pump in a continuous centrifugal extraction plant. Specifically, the two pumps were alternatively used to feed the decanter centrifuge by empting the malaxation chambers. The oxygenation effect was assessed in terms of dissolved oxygen amount (DOA) in the produced EVOO, which were also compared for the main qualitative traits such as commercial parameters, phenolic and volatile profiles and phthalates occurrence being the peristaltic pump equipped with a phthalates-free tube. Basically, the qualitative effect of the two pumps significantly differs for the DOA with about 10% saving for the peristaltic pump. The latter also gives significantly (p

This study explores the use of a photoionization detector (PID) to distinguish varieties of rosemary plant, based on their volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. The aim was to be able to distinguish plant varieties using a simple, quick, and inexpensive method. Two varieties were studied, Rosmarinus officinalis L. “Prostratus” and “Erectus”. First, the PID was used to detect VOCs emitted by leaves from each variety, and subsequently essential oil was extracted from the same leaves. Then, the well-established GC-MS method was used to characterize and differentiate the oil from each of the two varieties. The PID was able to capture different signals, and a ‘fingerprint’ for each of the two varieties was obtained. To validate the PID performance, the data set obtained was analyzed by means of advanced statistical models (principal component analysis, cluster and support vector machine and artificial neural network) which were able to discriminate the two varieties with high accuracy (over 80%). Therefore, the results confirm that the PID was able to detect differences in VOC emissions. In conclusion, PID proved be an interesting instrument for the classification of rosemary plants, and in this sense could be applied to other aromatic plants.

The wood-chipping process is affected by several factors, notably chipper settings and wood characteristics. It is often difficult to test all of these factors in a full factorial experimental plan, due to the large number of trials required. On the other hand, a screening design of the experiment makes it possible to manage a large number of variables in a small number of trials. Hence, this approach is used to test six factors, in order to optimize the productivity and chip quality of a drum wood-chipper. These factors are: feeding speed, screen size, PTO-speed, wood species, wood moisture content, and wood diameter. Productivity was significantly affected by screen size, while chip quality was related to feeding speed, screen size, PTO-speed, and wood species. The results suggest that the optimal configuration can be achieved by adjusting feeding speed, the PTO-speed, and the wood species, as these settings maximize chip quality. Screen size requires further analysis, as larger sizes increase productivity but reduce quality, while the opposite is true for smaller sizes. Thus, the optimal screen size requires a consideration of costs and benefits that may change according to the retail price of premium and regular wood chips, and production costs.

The alcoholic fermentation has a marked impact on wine aroma. During this phase, several compounds are produced by yeasts, and they overall constitute the so called “wine secondary aroma”. However, several of these compounds, mainly the esters responsible for the fruity flavour, are lost during the process. The preservation of beverage aroma and the loss recovery during processing is a key issue that is becoming extremely important in the winemaking technology. Thus, in a previous experiment, the aroma fermentation losses were recovered and added back to the wine. The effect of this practice was measured with chemical analysis, and the flavour difference was perceived at a panel test. Hence, a device was developed to recover these compounds by condensation was developed and patented. The condensation device avoids the escape of aroma compounds from the grape juice during the fermentation. Immediately after the production, the wines made were different from the control wines. However, there is a lack of information about the stability of the recovered compounds during the wine aging. Hence, this study evaluates the aroma of 3 wines produced with the condensation technology during 1 year of storage. In this trial, three fermentations on different grapes (cv. Sangiovese, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon) were conducted with and without the condensation device. The fermentations were conducted at industrial scale. The produced wines were analysed immediately after the production, and during 1 year of storage. The differences were assessed chromatographically (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and with dedicated discriminant sensory test (i.e. a triangular test). Immediately after the fermentation, in the condensed wines significantly higher concentrations of esters were found. The interested compounds are considered positive in wines and responsible for the fruity flavour. Furthermore, alcohols increased as well as the hexanoic acid. The differences were perceived at the sensory test immediately after the wines production. During the storage all the differences in chemical composition was maintained. Furthermore, after 1 year, the differences were perceived at the sensory test.

The inoculation of grape juice with Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains selected from indigenous yeast populations can be a suitable tool to control alcoholic fermentation, contributing to producing wines with typical flavor and aroma and, hence, the demand for native starter cultures is increasing. However, since low amounts of indigenous yeast biomasses are usually required for local winemaking, the industrial production of these yeasts can be expensive. Therefore, in this study, after selecting an indigenous S. cerevisiae strain based on relevant oenological and technological features, a pilot-plant for easy and rapid production of fresh yeast biomass directly in a winery located in Tuscany, was exploited. The selected yeast strain was used as a starter to carry out 25 and 100 hL fermentations and its enological performance was compared with that of the commercial starter normally used in the winery. Chemical and sensory analysis of the resulting wines showed that they differentiated according to the used yeast strain, with the wines produced by the indigenous S. cerevisiae strain being characterized by a distinctive aromatic and sensory profile. In conclusion, the pilot-plant effectively resulted in producing fresh yeast starter cultures in the winery to be successfully used to carry out alcoholic fermentations.

The performance of a two-wheel driven hitch-cart designed for draft animal power has been assessed. The cart fits a three-point linkage system and a ground-driven power take-off (PTO). Conventional pneumatic tires and metallic wheels have been tested in dedicated draft trials with increasing torque applied to PTO (7.0 to 70 Nm) at two ballast levels (100 and 200 kg). Draft force varies from a minimum of about 760 N (pneumatic tires and the lowest ballast), up to about 4480 N (metallic wheels and the highest ballast), with a linear increase as a function of the PTO applied torque. In term of global efficiency the better performances was achieved in different conditions. The metallic wheels deliver greater power to the PTO than pneumatic tires. Furthermore, they had global efficiencies higher than pneumatic for high power requirements, while the pneumatics perform better when the required power is low. Slippage rises as a function of increasing torque and decreasing ballast, with metallic wheels allowing delivery of greater PTO torque at the same slippage extent. The performances of the cart are consistent with the use of implements designed for small tractors.

Life cycle assessments of food packaging technologies have shown that they contribute considerably to the environmental impact of products. This study analyses the life cycle impact of three packaging solutions for high-quality extra-virgin olive oil. Two of them are widely used solutions, namely tin plated cans and dimmed glass bottles. The third one is a stainless steel bottle, which has been proposed recently. The analysis was performed with a cradle to grave approach and it takes into account raw materials extraction and processing, packaging production processes and several end-of-life scenarios. Impacts due to distribution were considered separately to assess uncertainties due to distribution distances. The results show that, for same sizes, dimmed glass bottles have the lowest overall impact value for all the six indicators selected except for ozone layer depletion, whereas stainless steel bottles have the highest impact values for all the other indicators. A sensitivity analysis was performed to determine how impact varies in function of distance and packaging weight. It shows that it is possible to set a breakeven point over which the impact of glass overcomes the one of the other packaging systems. Packaging shows a significant contribution to impact of bottled oil. For small packaging, such as a 0.100 L stainless steel bottle, this contribution can be as relevant as 60% of the overall global warming potential.

(1) Background: Recently, a new espresso extraction method, Caffè Firenze, has been developed, which uses gas at operating pressures of 20 bar to obtain abundant, persistent foam. The experiment aimed to evaluate the effect of using six gases (air, argon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon/nitrogen mix, and nitrous oxide) on the foam and liquid coffee. (2) Methods: Foam volume, persistence, sugar retention time, color, and rheological properties were measured. Volatile organic compounds were also evaluated. Analyses were also carried out on the liquid coffee to determine caffeine and chlorogenic acid concentrations. (3) Results: The analysis of variance revealed significant differences between the gases for all parameters. Multivariate analysis identified three groups of gases: the first comprised air, N2, and Ar; the second CO2 and N2O; and the third comprised samples extracted with CO2/N2 mix. (4) Conclusions: The choice of gas significantly influences the drink’s chemical-physical characteristics and is fundamental for product diversification.

The present study tested the effect of a slight increase in pressure (from 0 to 1 bar) during the fermentation on the wine aroma profile. Fermentations were carried out with a commercial dry yeast on Sangiovese juice in the absence of berry skins. The wine samples fermented under slight overpressure conditions were found to be significantly different from the control samples produced at atmospheric pressure in relation to several chemical compounds. Concentrations of many esters (i.e., isoamyl acetate, ethyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, hexyl acetate, ethyl dodecanoate, and ethyl tetradecanoate), and acids (i.e., hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, and decanoic acid) increased, while concentrations of two acids (i.e., isobutyric and isovaleric acid) decreased. These differences, notably the higher concentration of esters, are usually associated with a more intense fruity attribute. Triangular sensory tests revealed that the significant chemical differences were also perceivable; hence, introducing a slight pressure increase during the alcoholic fermentation could be a useful tool in managing the aroma profile of wine.

Filtration is the most widespread stabilisation operation for extra virgin olive oil, preventing microbial and enzymatic changes. However, during the harvest, the workload of olive mills is at its peak. This results in two approaches to filtration: (i) delays it until after harvesting, increasing the risk of degraded oil quality, and (ii) filters it immediately, increasing the workload. The aim of our experiment is to assess the risk of delaying filtration and establish a safe delay time. Changes in the sensory profile and volatile compound contents were evaluated during 30 days in filtered and unfiltered samples. Significant differences were related to filtration: both turbidity grade and microbial contamination; no differences for the legal parameters were found. Two, contrasting, results were obtained with respect to oil quality: (i) the fusty defect, appearing in less than five days in unfiltered oils, leading to the downgrade of the oil’s commercial category, and (ii) filtration removing some lipoxygenase volatile compounds. Consequently, a fruity attribute was more pronounced in unfiltered samples until day five of storage; it seems that, from this point, the fusty defect masked a fruity attribute. Hence, filtering within a few days strongly reduced the risk of degraded oil quality compared to a delayed filtration.

This study compared two harvesting techniques (manual and mechanical) and three grape sorting methods (no sorting, manual, and densimetric) in attempts to obtain high-quality must. The trials were carried out in 2009 and 2010 in Tuscany, Italy. The effectiveness of the harvest-sorting chain was assessed on two parameters. Substandard berries (SSB) is the percentage of berries, which do not meet quality standards that enter the winemaking process, and material other than grape (MOG) is a measure of the cleanliness of the berries entering the process. In the two years the trial was run the grape maturation level was widely different; in 2009 the vintage was more far mature than in 2010. With respect to SSB content and harvesting methods, in 2009 (more mature grapes) hand-picking reduced SSB content, while in 2010 there were no differences between the two harvesting methods. In both years, densimetric sorting reduced SSB content, while there were no significant differences between no sorting and manual sorting. In terms of MOG content, both harvesting and sorting results were inconsistent. In 2009, MOG was lower in mechanically harvested grapes; while in 2010 it was lower in hand-picked grapes. As for sorting methods, in 2009 there were no differences in MOG, while in 2010 mechanical sorting produced better results. Our results question whether the post-harvest sorting techniques used by many estates are effective; particularly as the question has received little attention and no previous research has compared methods. Secondly, our study contributes to the debate on the effects of harvesting technique on wine quality.

The decisive clue for an etymology is often found by chance. This paper presents four cases which come from the author’s personal experience. KEYWORDS: Italian, etymology, lexicology, lexicography, methodology

Flour from old varieties are usually considered very weak flours, and thus difficult to use in breadmaking especially when processed as Italian “Tipo 2” flour. Hence, the aim of our study was to understand if agronomic treatments can be used to improve flour processability and the quality of three old wheat varieties. An experimental strip-plot scheme was used: three old wheat varieties (Andriolo, Sieve, Verna), two seeding densities, three levels of nitrogen fertilization (N35, N80, and N135), and two levels of foliar sulfur fertilization. Analyzed parameters related to kernel composition, dough rheology and bread quality. Sulfur and nitrogen treatments significantly affected protein composition and dough alveograph strength, which increased by about 34% with nitrogen fertilization, and by about 14% with the sulfur treatment. However, only nitrogen fertilization affected bread characteristics. Crumb density significantly decreased from N35 to N135, while springiness and cohesiveness increased. On the other hand, sulfur did not improve breads. This highlight the importance of performing breadmaking tests in addition to the rheological determinations. The poor technological performance of old wheat flours can be improved with agronomical treatments designed to obtain higher-quality bread.

Veiled extra virgin olive oil (VEVOO) is very attractive on the global market. A study was performed to highlight the role of different amounts of water and microorganisms on the evolution of VEVOO quality during storage, using the selective effects of the application of individual or combined filtration and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatments. Four oil processing trials were carried out in four replicates, resulting in a full factorial design with two independent fixed factors: filtration and HPP treatments. The turbidity of all the olive oil samples was characterized. Furthermore, all the olive oil samples were analysed for legal parameters, volatile organic compounds and phenolic compounds during the storage tests. The microbial contamination in the presence of a high level of water activity (>0.6 Aw) was related to the formation of volatile aroma compounds, which were responsible for the “fusty” sensory defect. Furthermore, high water activity values were related to an increase in the hydrolytic degradation rate of the phenolic compounds. The oil turbidity has to be planned and controlled, starting from adjustment of the water content and application of good manufacturing practices.

The recovery of olive stones for biofuel is becoming increasingly widespread in olive milling plants. In this study we look at the economic and energetic benefits of using a de-stoner machine in a small-to-medium sized oil milling plant. The performance of the olive stone recovery system was evaluated over a full olive oil production season. The energetic viability of the de-stoner was assessed using a Life Cycle Assessment approach, and the break-even point was achieved when about 56 tons of olives had been processed, which is less than the annual production of the mill in question. Similarly, in economic terms, the machine covered its costs after about a quarter of its technical life.

ON THE OLD PRUSSIAN ARTICLE Summary There is evidence of the presence of the article in Old Prussian (evidently due to the influence of German), so that the use of stas as an article in Old Prussian texts is not to be considered a mistake on the part of the translators. In Catechisms I and II, in correspondence with the German definite article, nouns in the nominative and accusative cases are regularly preceded by stas, whereas nouns in the genitive never have stas (for the dative case we have no data). A cross-linguistic comparison shows that it is possible to have a differentiation of this kind in the occurrence of definite markers according to the ease. Since nouns in the genitive regularly take the article in the Enchiridion, the difference between Catechisms I and II and the Enchiridion may reflect partially different dialects.

The environmental impact of new farming practices is compared with that of conventional one. The approach is that of LCA and the assessing procedure is based on two cross-interaction matrices relating system inputs with emissions and impacts. With the aim to allow its application also at farm level by non-expert users, the procedure has been implemented in software that facilitate it use. Furthermore, the definition of standard impact values and a total environmental effects index make it easier to compare different systems and to evaluate the improvement achieved with a new agricultural practice. As an example, the model has been applied to compare the environmental effects generated in the production of sunflower using ecological, integrated and conventional farming techniques. Both Ecological and Integrated technique present lower impact than conventional even if for some specific impact the results are inverted. The application highlights the importance of the functional unit: when environmental effects are referred to the unit of production (ton), the total impact of the integrated technique is higher than the conventional one. Energy and CO2 efficiency are also computed, which are resulted to be good indicators of the overall environmental impact of a cultivation system

Malaxation is a critical step of olive oil extraction process as it can largely affect the extraction yield along with product quality. At present, malaxation control is based upon accumulated empirical results and the experience of the operators. There are evidences that this method rarely point out the olive-paste state suitable for oil extraction. The paper reports the results of a laboratory investigation aimed to verify the feasibility of using the olive paste consistency variation during malaxation as a parameter representing the right state for oil extraction. Olive pastes consistency evaluation was performed with a rotational rheometer. Oil extraction yield was evaluated by means of an extractability index (EI) determined by laboratory centrifugation of the paste. The effect of different malaxation time and pastes humidity was investigated. Both malaxation time and humidity increments involve significant decrements of paste consistency and a simultaneous increase of EI. A good linear correlation among paste consistency and EI has been found, i.e. a large proportion of EI variance, about 90%, can be explained in terms of paste consistency variation during malaxation. The availability of a measurable parameter representing the paste state suitable for oil extraction could allow to implement a “closed-loop” control system for extraction yield maximization.

The field performance of a horse-drawn hitch cart equipped with a PTO system powered by the two cart ground wheels have been investigated. For this purpose field tests on clay and turf soil, with varying ballast and PTO torque, have been carried out pulling the cart by a tractor. Preliminary tests were aimed at assessing the traction capability of horse breed. These tests showed that the mean draught force given by two of these horses was 173daN, average working speed was about 1m*s-1, resulting a mean draught power developed by each horse of about 0.86kW. The PTO cart system performance has shown that the torque has not exceeded 2.4daN*m, maximum draught or PTO power was 1.15kW, rotation speed just higher than 400min-1, with mean efficiency of about 50%. These values are consistent with horse performance and small haymaking, fertilizing, seeding and chemical application machine requirements.