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Pro-environmental intentions encourage individuals to make conscious decisions that help protect the environment, reduce waste, conserve resources, and preserve natural habitats. This study aims to assess the predictive power of environmental concern, perceived behavioral control and social norms in determining the pro-environmental intentions in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) framework. Methodologically we rely on Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), applied to the survey study among 2,702 university students majoring in economics, finance, management, or marketing from Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Spain. The results show that the model explained 51% of the total variance of pro-environmental intentions, with the predictive power of environmental concern and perceived behavioral control at 42% and 45%, respectively, and social norms at only 6% (out of total 51% of explanatory power). The implications of our results suggest a major focus on increasing environmental concern and perceived behavioral control in behavioral interventions to support pro-environmental behavior. The effectiveness of social pressure produced by injunctive social norms proved limited. The cross-country differences were not statistically significant. More research must be done to study the relative effect of injunctive and descriptive social norms on pro-environmental behavior.

The competitiveness is a multidimensional concept, being analysed at different levels. National and company competitiveness are deeply investigated, however, less attention is given to regional competitiveness. The importance of regional competitiveness arises from the factuality that it creates the quality of local conditions for companies' operations. Following this rational, two main goals of this researchare accepted. First goal is to model the impact of selected determinants on regional competitiveness, using a multiple linear regression model. The second goal is to propose activities that need to be implemented with the aim to improve the competitive performance of the analyzed regions. The model proves the positive impact of international exchange, human resources, and innovation, so future measures and activities at the regional, city and municipal levels need to be focused on strengthening these determinants.

The aim of this article is to examine whether the cross-country and gender variations of entrepreneurship can be explained within the institutional framework. The study addresses normative forces to which entrepreneurs are expected to adapt within European welfare states. The normative forces are focused on norm-based factors of governmental quality and value-based factors of governmental generosity, which are both hypothesized to be associated with entrepreneurship at the level of society and furthermore from the gender perspective. To verify our hypotheses, the research was conducted among 28 European countries in the years 2012 to 2018. We adopted the macro-level of analysis and undertook panel data analysis (PDA). We estimated the econometric models with entrepreneurship rates as dependent variables and those with norm-based and value-based factors as independent variables. The results confirm that norm-based factors are associated with entrepreneurship and there are significant differences in the responses of female and male entrepreneurial activities to the quality of government. However, we did not find supporting evidence for the statistically significant impact of governmental generosity on entrepreneurship. The novelty of our research is in implementing institutional theory into the discussion on entrepreneurship from the welfare state perspective, by introducing the concept of norm-based and value-based factors which reflect the quality and generosity of the government. We also distinguish between the impact of governmental quality and generosity on entrepreneurship from the gender perspective to contribute to the discussion on the gender gap in entrepreneurship.

High-tech internationalization touches on two aspects impacting entrepreneurship: openness of the economy and its level of innovativeness. Both of them might positively or negatively affect the process of new company creations, as suggested by the concept of entrepreneurial regime with creative destruction or by the concept of routinized regime with creative accumulation. The aim of the article is to assess the impact of high-tech internationalization on the start-up process of new company creation. Cluster analysis and panel modeling for European Union countries in 2009–2018 were conducted. The research results distinguish clusters of European Union countries with a different level of high-tech internationalization. The impact of high-tech internationalization on start-up rates is significant in the case of both clusters; however, it is stronger in the cluster of countries with a relatively higher level of high-tech international openness. The high-tech intra-EU import and extra-EU high-tech export negatively affect the rate of new enterprise creation in both clusters. Additionally, extra-EU import in clusters with a relatively higher level of high-tech internationalization also negatively impacts start-up rates. The only aspect supporting the start-up process is the level of intra-EU export in clusters with higher levels of high-tech internationalization. The results suggest that in European Union countries, creative accumulation is the dominant phenomenon.

The paper aims to determine how sustainability can be implemented into virtual business simulators dedicated to higher education due to the need for raising environmental awareness among students. Climate and natural environmental changes caused by human activities require adjustments in society’s mindsets and activities, especially in the business-related sector, which makes the implementation of sustainability in business higher education of crucial importance. Virtual business simulators are innovative tools in business higher education. Their use, as a part of game-based learning, is attracting increasing interest, as this method allows us to understand interactions between business decisions and their results. In this paper, we present our case study of an IT-based business simulator, which includes aspects of sustainability, and the initial experience of a group of test students participating in the business game. The paper discusses the authors’ own IT solutions and the possibilities of implementing the concept of sustainability into business-oriented higher education. This paper proposed the manner of implementing sustainability, including pseudocodes, into a virtual business simulator. The results show how challenging it is to implement sustainability into game-based business education, as it increases the complexity of interactions among different aspects of running a business, including the goal of making a company more diversified.

The gender gap in entrepreneurship has been observed for a long time, explained by both female-specific and gender-neutral factors, but none of these explanations is generally accepted. The aim of the paper is to assess the effect of internal economic dynamics on female entrepreneurship. Economic dynamics is a persistent process affected simultaneously by both endogenous and exogenous factors of a different time horizon, with the development trend and the business cycle as the most important time perspectives. The decomposition procedure of time series is implemented to extract trend and cyclical fluctuations, after which the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) method is used to estimate models showing the impact of economic dynamics on female entrepreneurship in the long- and medium-run. The study concerns the countries of the Visegrad Group, including Czechia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia, and is based on quarterly data from the years 1998 to 2020. The results show that, although the economic dynamics impact female entrepreneurship, to some extent, it is not the most dominant factor. The impact of economic dynamics on female entrepreneurship is much stronger in the trend perspective than in the business cycle perspective. The nature of the effect of economic dynamics on female entrepreneurship is also country-specific.

Entrepreneurship is believed to be shaped by institutions; however, the paper assumes that trust in institutions is a fundamental prerequisite for the impact of institutions on entrepreneurship. The aims of the paper are to determine (i) whether trust in European institutions affects the level of entrepreneurship in European Union countries, and (ii) whether there are any differences in this impact regarding the types of institutions and (iii) a country’s government budget size. Based on yearly panel data for 27 European Union countries in the years 2004–2019 and estimations of panel regression models, the results show that confidence in institutions is a significant factor in explaining entrepreneurship. However, institutional trust has no homogeneous effect on entrepreneurship, as the impact depends on the kind of institutions related to their functions and values as well as on the country’s characteristics in relation to the size of the government’s budget. Practical implications suggest the possibilities of supporting entrepreneurship—especially in countries with a relatively lower public redistribution—by raising the level of confidence in the European Central Bank. The originality of the paper is related to distinguishing institutional trust based on the type of institutions and the country’s characteristics of governmental budget size.

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of entrepreneurship on the competitiveness of regional economies, in particular on the competitive potential and position of regions. In order to do this, an empirical study of the Polish provinces was conducted. In order to achieve the aim of the study, regression function parameters were estimated by means of three methods: the classic method of least squares, the panel method with fixed effects and the panel method with random effects. Empirical confirmation was obtained for the first hypothesis, which assumed a positive impact of entrepreneurship on the competitive potential of a region. In particular, the findings lend support to the two related secondary hypotheses, which indicated a positive impact of the enterprise start-up rate (Hypothesis 1A) and enterprise density rate (Hypothesis 1B) on the competitive potential of a region. The issue of the impact of entrepreneurship on the competitive position of a region is less clear. One of the secondary hypotheses, which assumed a positive impact of the enterprise density rate on the competitive position (Hypothesis 2B) was confirmed by the findings. However, the enterprise start-up rate was found to have an adverse influence on the competitive position of regions, thus Hypothesis 2A has to be rejected.

This paper aims to investigate the patterns of gender inequalities in the Information and Communication (ICT) sector in European Union (EU) countries. Based on secondary data from Eurostat, a cluster analysis has been conducted to identify clusters of EU countries with various patterns of dependencies among the gender pay gap, female entrepreneurship, and employment in the ICT sector. Three clusters of EU countries have been identified with different patterns of the situation as regards women in this sector. In countries belonging to the first cluster, a higher level of gender pay gap coexists with the lowest share of female participation in the ICT sector and features the choice of entrepreneurship rather than employment. In countries of the second cluster, the lowest gender pay gap is observed together with an increase in female employment in the ICT sector as compared to the countries in the first cluster, and a higher share of employed women than entrepreneurs. In the countries of the third cluster, the moderate gender pay gap found therein is associated with the highest share of female ICT entrepreneurs, and is higher than the share of employed professionals. The discovery of the various patterns of the co-existence of the gender pay gap and women’s participation in the ICT sector reveal that the pay gap is rather the factor preventing women from entering this sector, as there is limited potential to push them towards entrepreneurship instead of paid employment. The authors’ results contribute to the theory of entrepreneurship and gender studies by investigating gender gaps in entrepreneurship and wages in the ICT sector as a primary sector.

Objective: Female entrepreneurship rates vary strongly across countries and industries. The aim of this paper is to verify what determines female entrepreneurship in male-dominated industries and female-dominated industries and whether the differences between those types of sectors are significant. Research Design & Methods: We use panel data across 7 European countries in the timespan of 2009-2018 to verify our assumptions. We study the Construction (NACE F) and Human Health and Social Work Activities (NACE Q) industries. Findings: The research shows significant differences amongst the determinants of female entrepreneurship in male-dominated and female-dominated industries. Industry-specific determinants play an important role in male-dominated industries and a much lesser role in female-dominated ones. Contribution & Value Added: The conducted research indicates the necessity of including the industry-perspective in studies on female entrepreneurship. Previous studies have frequently neglected this aspect, paying more attention to country-specific determinants.

Although innovation and entrepreneurship have been subjects of researchers’ interests for years, nevertheless both the concepts and the relationships between them remain controversial. Since different indices are accepted for the measurement of these categories, the question is whether the relationship between them depends on the choice of measures. The aim of the paper is to indicate the innovation impact on the entrepreneurial process with regard to different measures of these concepts. The research was conducted with the use of regression analyses as a method and yearly data for Polish regions in the period 2003–2018. At the initial stage of the research as many measures of innovation and entrepreneurship as possible were introduced into the estimation of regression function parameters. Statistically insignificant variables were deleted at later stages of research. This research confirms that innovativeness and entrepreneurship are broad concepts and the relationship between them depends on the choice of measures. Saturation with enterprises and saturation with start-ups seem to be more sensitive to innovation than other measures of entrepreneurship. Innovation seen as input, measured by spending on research and development (R&D) has a bigger influence on entrepreneurship than the output innovation measured by revenues from innovative activities. Considering a relatively low level of explanatory power of innovations, it seems they are not the only factor influencing entrepreneurship.

CEL NAUKOWY: Celem naukowym artykułu jest określenie znaczenia facylitującej, koordynującej roli nauczyciela w procesie edukacji przedsiębiorczej bazującej na wirtualnych grach strategicznych. PROBLEM I METODY BADAWCZE: Istotą uczenia się, również z wykorzystaniem wirtualnych gier strategicznych, jest aktywność i zaangażowanie studentów. Problem badawczy oscyluje wokół facylitującej roli nauczyciela w trakcie prowadzonych przez studentów rozgrywek. Aby to rozstrzygnąć, przeprowadzono eksperyment, w ramach którego w grupie eksperymentalnej nauczyciel udzielał sprzężenia zwrotnego w procesie oceniania kształtującego, natomiast w grupie kontrolnej studenci bazowali jedynie na wynikach generowanych przez system gry. PROCES WYWODU: W nauczaniu przedsiębiorczości z wykorzystaniem wirtualnych gier strategicznych studenci są postawieni w roli menedżerów firm, podejmują sekwencję decyzji zarządczych, symulując prowadzenie przedsiębiorstwa, a po każdej zamkniętej rundzie decyzyjnej otrzymują automatyczne generowane przez program komputerowy informacje zwrotne, obrazujące wyniki rozgrywki. Pytanie zatem, czy automatyczne informacje są wystarczające dla efektywności procesu dydaktycznego, czy jednak zaangażowanie nauczyciela, jego facylitująca i wspierająca rola mają znaczenie dla osiąganych rezultatów. WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Wyniki eksperymentu wskazują, iż studenci, którzy mieli systematyczny kontakt z nauczycielem zadającym wspierające pytania i stymulującym do refleksji, wykazali się większym zaangażowaniem i uzyskali znacząco lepsze rezultaty rozgrywki niż ci studenci, którzy bazowali wyłącznie na automatycznej informacji zwrotnej wbudowanej w oprogramowanie wirtualnej gry strategicznej. WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Pomimo automatycznych informacji zwrotnych stymulująca i koordynująca rola nauczyciela stosującego ocenianie kształtujące istotnie wpływa na proces uczenia się studentów z wykorzystaniem wirtualnych gier strategicznych, czego wskaźnikiem były wyniki przez nich uzyskane.

In Poland, the share of early internationalized companies has been growing, and such companies operate on the international markets almost from their inception. The data of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor shows that in 2011 the share of enterprises having at least 25% of their customers from abroad was 17% of newly created companies whilst in 2014 it was 24%. It shows that the early internationalization is becoming a fact. In the literature on internationalization, the phenomenon of early internationalization has been observed since the late 1990s. Despite this, there is still no clear answer to the question about the reasons and the process itself.

Developing entrepreneurship is one of the national economic policy objectives as a perceived factor promoting economic development and competitiveness of companies and regions. Education is considered to be one of the tools for stimulating entrepreneurship. However, in order for education to be effective, the training areas and teaching methods must be appropriately selected. This article contributes to the current discussion regarding the effectiveness of entrepreneurial education, and its aim is to determine whether tertiary-level education can affect the perception of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention among students. To achieve the specified aim, a research method has been designed that is an original compilation of a double survey and an experiment. A comparison of the results made it possible to determine whether the contents of the course and the teaching methods had improved the perception of entrepreneurship and helped foster the development of entrepreneurial intention.

Wielostronna aktywizacja uczącego się jest kluczowym elementem współczesnych teorii pedagogicznych, do których zaliczany jest m.in. konstruktywizm edukacyjny. Sytuuje on w centrum procesu dydaktycznego uczącego się i jego aktywność, która przyczynia się do tworzenia nowych schematów poznawczych, ich przebudowywania i włączania w istniejące już struktury wiedzy. Z punktu widzenia nauczania w procesie tym istotne jest zaaranżowanie takich sytuacji dydaktycznych, aby uczący się w interakcji społecznej miał możliwość nawiązania do swojej wiedzy uprzedniej, miał czas na analizę i refleksję oraz aplikację nowych rozwiązań. Przyjęte założenia konstruktywizmu są szczególnie korzystne z punktu widzenia szeroko rozumianej edukacji przedsiębiorczej, której ważnym elementem jest postawa proaktywna i kreatywna. W realizacji powyższych założeń i celów dydaktycznych pomocne są metody aktywizujące, do których należą także gry elektroniczne. Celem artykułu jest wskazanie możliwości projektowania i prowadzenia zajęć zgodnie z regułami konstruktywistycznej teorii uczenia się i poznania prowadzonych w formie gier elektronicznych w edukacji przedsiębiorczej. Aby zrealizować ten cel, wykorzystano metodę studium przypadku. Przedstawiono wirtualne gry strategiczne będące wynikiem realizacji prac w dwóch międzynarodowych projektach dydaktycznych oraz na bazie doświadczeń z ich wdrażaniem do praktyki uczelni wyższej, omówiono propozycje realizacji zajęć zgodnie z konstruktywistycznym cyklem uczenia się wg D. Kolba. Proponowane rozwiązanie dydaktyczne może być wartościowe poznawczo i inspirujące dla tych, którzy zajmują się nauczaniem przedsiębiorczości.

Wirtualne gry strategiczne są coraz częściej stosowanym narzędziem edukacyjnym, pozwalającym na podążanie za współczesnymi trendami w dydaktyce. Są jednak narzędziem innowacyjnym, stąd konieczna jest dyskusja nad możliwościami ich stosowania w edukacji przedsiębiorczej. Jednocześnie wydają się one być możliwe do zastosowania jako narzędzie badawcze, które wykorzystuje swego rodzaju eksperyment czy też quasi-eksperyment do badań nad przedsiębiorczością. W naukach ekonomicznych możliwości wykorzystania eksperymentu są ograniczone, gdyż musiałby być on stosowany na żywych organizmach przedsiębiorstw czy gospodarek. Tymczasem gry strategiczne, będące formą prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej w warunkach wirtualnych, a nie rzeczywistych, wydają się dawać korzyści badawcze wynikające z możliwości obserwowania zachowań i efektów aktywności przedsiębiorstw bez ponoszenia ryzyka i kosztów eksperymentu przez faktyczną firmę. Celem artykułu jest ocena możliwości wykorzystania gier strategicznych w edukacji przedsiębiorczej oraz w eksperymentalnych badaniach nad przedsiębiorczością. Artykuł opiera się na rozważaniach teoretycznych, popartych wynikami badań ankietowych i wynikami obserwacji zachowań studentów w czasie trwania rozgrywek wirtualnych gier strategicznych. Aby ocenić grę z punktu widzenia metodycznego, posłużono się przykładem badań nad orientacją przedsiębiorczą i porównano wyniki uzyskane na tej samej próbie badawczej za pomocą badań ankietowych i eksperymentalnych, traktując ten problem badawczy wyłącznie jako egzemplifikację możliwości eksperymentów przez gry strategiczne

Celem artykułu jest określenie wpływu struktury sektora przedsiębiorstw w poszczególnych województwach na tworzenie nowych firm i upadek istniejących. Struktura ta decyduje o poziomie koncentracji lub rozproszenia przedsiębiorstw jako barierach wyjścia z rynku. W szczególności przedmiotem badań było oddziaływanie takich elementów struktury sektora przedsiębiorstw jak stopień nasycenia gospodarki regionu przedsiębiorstwami, udział mikroprzedsiębiorstw, małych, średnich i dużych firm w liczbie aktywnych przedsiębiorstw. Na podstawie estymacji panelowej dla województw Polski w latach 2003-2008 stwierdzono, że udziały dużych firm i mikroprzedsiębiorstw obniżają stopę tworzenia i upadku firm, natomiast udział małych firm w regionie sprzyja zarówno powstawaniu nowych, jak i zamykaniu istniejących.

W gospodarce opartej na wiedzy szczególnego znaczenia nabierają szkolenia przyczyniające się do rozwoju kapitału ludzkiego. Jedną z metod dydaktycznych szczególnie obiecujących w edukacji przedsiębiorczej są strategiczne gry zarządcze. Szkolenie z wykorzystaniem tej metody polega na tym, że osoby szkolone prowadzą wirtualne przedsiębiorstwo, podejmując w kolejnych rundach decyzje związane z wieloma aspektami prowadzenia firmy, takimi jak produkcja, marketing, finanse czy zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi. Gry strategiczne są w stanie rozwijać takie umiejętności jak praca zespołowa, zdolność do podejmowania decyzji czy umiejętności analityczne. Aby się tak jednak stało, konieczny jest spójny, jasny i odzwierciedlający rzeczywistość gospodarczą scenariusz gry.

The aim of this paper is to show how the entrepreneurial orientation of companies which belong to a business cluster affects the sustainability and growth of the cluster. Out of all the different dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation, innovativeness and competitive aggressiveness seem to have the greatest influence on the functioning of a company within the cluster. The clusters which have the greatest chances of sustained growth are those which operate in industries dominated by “acquiescent innovators”, companies characterised by low competitive aggressiveness and a high level of innovation.