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Previous research has suggested that athletes at risk of low energy availability can present with symptoms other than those traditionally expected and highlight the complexity of identifying individuals at risk. It is very important to recognize as early as possible the risk of low energy availability by evaluating the presence of symptoms which include menstrual and gastrointestinal dysfunction, injury history, as well as oral contraceptive use. This is especially so in aesthetic sports which require high levels of strength, power, and endurance as well as artistic skills to perform in different environments. This study aimed to verify possible links between low energy availability, eating disorders risks, and body dissatisfaction in aesthetic sports' adolescent athletes. Seventy-one female athletes (mean ± SD, age: 17.55±3.15 years; height: 169.70 ± 6.27 cm; weight: 58.75 ± 6.42 kg; training 13.79±6.71 hours/week) completed questionnaires: Low Energy Availability Questionnaire (LEAF-Q), Eating Attitudes Test (EAT), and Body Dissatisfaction Scale (BSQ). Results suggested that most of the examined female athletes fall into the normal range of BMI scores with regard to body mass and eating patterns, but there are athletes with very high scores on the questionnaires among them. No significant correlations were reported between low energy availability and other study variables, but EAT-26 and BSQ scores correlated significantly (r=.694, p

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of aerobic exercise program on the bilateral coordination of preschool children. The boys and girls (n = 60), aged five to six, were randomly assigned to the experimental group (n = 30) or the control group (n = 30). The children in the experimental group were involved in aerobic training program over a 12-week period. Three training sessions were performed per week, lasting 30 minutes each. For the evaluation of children’s coordination, the Bilateral Coordination subtest from the BOT-2 (Bruininks- Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency) battery of tests was used. The children completed seven different tasks, both at the initial and the final measurement, which were further used to calculate the total score. To determine the changes in bilateral coordination, the two-factor (group × time) univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used, while the effect size, presented by the partial Eta squared, was calculated for each task and the total score. A nonsignificant effect (p = .280) was observed for the task “Touching Nose with Index Fingers - Closed Eyes”, whereas a significant improvements in all the other tasks and the total score were found in the intervention group (p < .05). The magnitude of effect size ranged from medium to large. The findings indicate that the aerobic exercise program contributes to the development of bilateral coordination in preschool children.

Introduction: This research aimed to determine the impact of horseback riding on the balance ability of first-grade students. Material and methods: Fifty-eight students were divided into two sub-groups: twenty-eight riders and thirty non-riders. The subtest of balance is composed of nine items which were grouped into five variables: Total balance, Static balance, Dynamic balance, and Open and Closed eyes balance. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine the significance of the difference between the groups, and the strength of the effect of intergroup differences was determined using the Cohen criteria. Results: The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between groups in Total balance, Static, and Balance with closed eyes. Cohen's criterion indicates that there was a strong effect of intergroup differences in performance demanding balance tasks of 7-year-old children. Conclusion: It can be observed that horseback riding has the effect of reducing the difference between the maximum and minimum balance points by enhancing competencies at the minimum level.

Learning basic mathematical concepts with the involvement of the whole body through physical movement can improve mathematical performance in children. The acquisition and development of mathematical skills can be seen as a central cognitive attribute in contemporary society. In general, we do not think about the development of motor skills and manipulative skills, such as hand–eye coordination in babies, as a basic element of cognitive development. Fine motor skills are a powerful predictor of later achievements in the field of mathematics. The authors point out that there are great differences in the level of mathematical abilities between children with the most powerful and the ones with the poorest motor skills, and that when taken together, fine motor skills, movement and play, are much stronger general predictors for achieving good results in mathematics.

Objectives: The main goal of this research was to determine to what extent the competitors’ functional abilities and morphological characteristics hypothetically explain the results achieved in static and dynamic apnea and offer a prediction. Methods: The study included 35 artistic swimmers, body height of 162.98 ± 5.252 cm and body weight of 51.47 ± 5.578 kg that is in the regular training process and competes in the junior competitions. Morphological characteristic variables were obtained by analyzing the subjects’ body composition by the bioelectric impedance method (BIA). Variables for the functional abilities assessment were determined by two tests: forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume (FEV). The influence of functional abilities and morphological characteristics on the results in static and dynamic apnea was assessed by regression analysis. Results: The results show that functional abilities and morphological characteristics have a significant influence on the diving results. Conclusion: These results are important for the selection and effective training during the training period and can influence the appropriate specific training programs development. They can be used for the optimal preparation of all competitors in water sports (swimmers, water polo players, artistic swimmers and athletes practicing apnea).

Background: ‪The purpose of this study was to determine a relationship between the chosen parameters of aerial cartwheel on the balance beam during learning the skill of this element. Material and methods: ‪Four national level junior female gymnasts participated in this study. The trials of the aerial cartwheel were filmed, and the best technically performed trial was chosen for analysis. Results: ‪A statistically significant relationship was found between the duration of the flight phase and the length between foot at the starting position (-0.675) and the height of the body's center of gravity (-0.626), respectively. Statistically significant positive correlations were also found between the knee angle at landing and the duration of the phase on one leg at landing (0.639). A strong positive correlation was also found between the length of the aerial cartwheel and the height of the body's center of gravity (0.677), and a negative one with the duration of the flight phase (-0.533) and the duration of the phase on one leg at the landing (-0.805). Conclusions: ‪Using basic biomechanical principles, the gymnast can perform movements with less effort. A coach can identify mistakes more quickly and provide their gymnasts with more effective advice.

Proper growth and development of young school children require mastering different skills, especially gross motor skills - basic locomotor and manipulative skills. It is essential to monitor the physical activity of nine-year-old children necessary for further proper development and healthy habits, which will continue into adulthood. This study aims to determine physical activity level, BMI, and gender differences in the performance of gross motor skills in children aged nine years (± six months). The study involved 40 participants (20 girls and 20 boys). Their body height, body weight, and body mass index were 140.46 ± 5.72 cm; 37.84 ± 8.21 cm; and 19.09 ± 3.56, respectively. All participants completed the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children and performed the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2), and two sub-tests of BOT-2 (Speed and Agility and Upper-Limb Coordination). T-test for independent samples was used to compare groups according to physical activity level (physically active and inactive group) and explore interactions with gender and BMI, and gross motor skills variables. F-values, p-values, and partial eta squared (ɳ2) values were reported as MANOVA outcomes. The results showed a significant difference between physical activity level and locomotor skills but not in manipulative skills. Further research should focus on various exercise programs that contribute to developing skills and participation in organized physical activity of children of different ages.

Background. Monitoring the abilities of typically developed children is very important.Methods. This study aimed to determine the levels and differences in motor coordination of the upper extremities between first and third-grade primary school children using the subtest of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test (BOT-2). The sample included 79 healthy subjects of both sexes, chronological age ranging from seven to nine years, body height 134.51 ± 8.43 cm (Mean ± SD), bodyweight 33.01 ± 8.65 kg (Mean ± SD). The Mann–Whitney U test determined differences between groups, for the benefit of the group of third-grade subjects in all upper extremity coordination variables.Results. The results showed that differences in age and biological growth and development in young children in some variables of upper-limb coordination influenced medium size (2ULC, 6ULC, 7ULC), but in most of the variables examined they had great influence (1ULC. 3ULC, 4ULC, 5ULC, TULC) according to Cohen’s criterion.Conclusion. It can be concluded that well-organized and expertly guided physical activities, as well as regular testing of children when it comes to developing coordination, can influence early detection of movement difficulties and eliminate problems in acquiring new coordination skills, and thus create an appropriate base for engaging in sports activities while growing up. Keywords: motor development, coordination, physical education.

The aim of this paper is to point out the importance of motivation in sport achievement and to describe the psychological aspect of motivation, as one of the most important psychological factors for success. Motivation theories give definitions of terms and previous knowledge of different authors, and the second part of this paper gives the most commonly used techniques: Goal settings, cognitive restructuring, and imagination, and how to apply them. When it comes to motivation in sports, some important concepts and some of the most important interventions for motivating athletes presented in this paper can be analyzed in the psychological training of athletes. Special attention given to the importance and the role of trainers in the process of motivating athletes emphasizes psychology as a key factor in sport achievement.

The aim of the research was to examine and compare the effects of physical education (PE) classes with additional swimming training in relation to the regular teaching of PE on the motor abilities of students of a younger school age. A sample of 100 respondents was divided into two sub-samples in relation to the number of weekly exercises: a sub-sample of 50 students (control group-CG) with regular PE and a sub-sample of 50 students (experimental group-EG) who, besides their regular classes, had two additional weekly exercises in the form of swimming training. The training program of swimming courses was conducted for three months in the first semester of the 2015/2016 school year. Five standardized Eurofit battery tests were used to evaluate their motor abilities. The obtained results indicate that two additional weekly exercises in the form of swimming training caused statistically significant differences between the EG and the CG in long distance jogging, sit-ups for 30 s and a 20 m run test with a progressive increase in speed. The results suggest that swimming in addition to the already known impact on physiological characteristics positively influences the transformation of motor abilities in students of a younger school age.

Background. The aim of this research was to examine differences between athletes’ perception of coaching behaviors in individual and team sports. Methods. College athletes (N = 100) participated in the study. Three questionnaires were administered to the athletes: Demographic questionnaire, Leadership Scale for Sports and Negative Coaching Behavior Questionnaire. Results. The results of this study revealed the significant differences among athletes’ perception of coaching behaviors in individual and team sports. Individual athletes in this study gave higher ratings to training and instruction, social support and positive feedback leader behavior from their coaches. Also, athletes from individual sports had smaller scores on two dimensions and total score of negative coaching behavior questionnaire. Conclusion. Those findings suggest that the behavior of the coach directed towards improving the performance of athletes` was higher evaluated from athletes in individual sports. Further studies should provide more information about coaches’ behavior during the competitive. Keywords: myostatin deficiency, food withdrawal, starvation, muscle atrophy.

This paper is based on the results of the cross-sectional experiment that was implemented in the school year 2015/2016, within the female students of the third year of undergraduate studies at the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education (FSPE), University of Nis. The study was for the first time realized in this school year, during the mandatory curriculum in Rhythmic gymnastics (6th semester of education, weekly classes 3+3, and 45+45, per semester). Assessment of body composition is realized along with the Pedagogical practice (as pre-exam study requirements). The sample includes 30 PE female students, within the 3rd year of study following the Bologna Declaration. Based on the body composition assessment, the student’s results are displayed in the form of histograms, for each measured variable. Comparative analysis of results was used for the consideration of the differences among examined students within the group, considering the calculated Mean values and recorded MIN and MAX results, as well as student profile model score. The results were evaluated based on the system for the assessment of body composition (OMRON BF511) and the interpretation of results for the following variables: body fat percentage, visceral fat, percentage of body muscles, body mass index (MBI), and the basal metabolic rate. The results obtained show the expected intra-group differences in body composition parameters, which are not inherited conditionally, for all of the selected body variables (except BMI). But, although the most of the values are recommended, those low percentages of high body fat (BF), and body mass index (BMI), as well as relative skeletal muscle mass values (M%), indicate the heterogeneity of the student population, their sports orientation, and their level of physical activity.

The aim of this study was based on the kinematic parameters, extracted at different stages of performing a forward handspring to determine the interconnection of methodological procedures of learning with the final structure of the movement. The respondent is an active competitor with years of experience, elite athlete, many times Croatian champion, and competitor at European, World Championships and the Olympics. The team composed of six gymnastic experts, chose one of the best performances by twelve methodological procedures and the best performance (of six) twoleg forward handsprings basing their choice on a detailed review of recorded material. Assessment of quality of performance was done according to the defined rules prescribed by the regulations (Code of Points). The forward handspring technique consists of four phases based on which 45 space and time kinematic parameters were selected (30 parameters in the phase of hand contact and push-off, 7 in the flight phase, and 8 parameters in the landing phase). By extraction of space and time parameters, there was a differentiation of certain methodological procedures that are the best for learning forward handspring in each phase of its performance. This research indicates that these methodological procedures mostly coincide in space kinematic parameters by which the technique of a forward handspring is described.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of whey protein vs carbohydrate supplementation during eight weeks of resistance training on body composition and strength in young adult men. Fifteen young adult men (age 21±5 years; body height: 178.63±4.1 cm; body mass 81.73 ± 4.97 kg) were randomly assigned to three groups: a whey protein group (WP; 1g/kg immediately after resistance training, n=5), a carbohydrates group (CHO; 30g during and 30g immediately after resistance training, n=5) or a control group (K; n=5) for 8 weeks of resistance training. All the participants were tested for each of the following body composition parameters: body mass (BM), fat free mass (FFM), fat mass (FM), glycogen mass (GM), muscle mass (MM), total body water (TBW), extracellular water (EW), intracellular water (IW). Also, the participants were assessed for muscle strength 1RM bench press, 1RM squat, 1RM shoulder press and maximum pull-ups. Data were analyzed with a two-way mixed model ANOVA (p

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of the 12 weeks experimental exercise program on the balance of adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities. Participants were 15 adolescents aged 15-20 years (18.18±1.54 years) with mild disturbances in intellectual functioning attending a special school „October 14th" in Nis. The program consisted of games with the balls and polygons on the basketball court. The balance ability was tested by nine tasks of the BOT-2 (Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency). The results indicate that the applied exercise program contributed to the statistically significant increase in total score of balance (p = .002), walking foreward heel-toe on the line (p = .045), standing on one leg on a line with eyes closed (p = .027) and standing on one leg on balance beam with eyes closed (p = .006). The applied exercise program had a positive influence on the balance of young people with mild intellectual disabilities. Additionally, the results can provide useful information in optimizing the training loads of students with mild intellectual disabilities throughout Physical Education classes.

The aim of this paper was, based on the review of the previous available theoretical, scientific and expert knowledge about a handstand, to suggest a more efficient teaching model. A handstand is an exercise performed on all the apparatus in a gymnastics all-around competition, in its basic form of performance or as a transition exercise, when it is performed as a link to some more complex acrobatic exercises. In addition, this exercise is also performed in other sports as well as a part of the physical education curriculum, so that this paper will help not only the gymnastics experts and coaches, but also the coaches and teachers in other sports branches, to improve this exercise with their performers in a regular way and by the application of the most effective methods.

The influence of anxiety and self-confidence of an athlete with an emphasis on self-efficacy has been the subject of numerous research in the sport, but their relationship is not fully understood. In our research, we try to explain that competitive anxiety influences sports achievement only through the level of General Self-Efficacy. A lower level of General Self-Efficacy leads to lower sports achievement. In order to explore the relationship between General Self-Efficacy and anxiety on sports achievement, we examined 76 active athletes in collective sports, as well as their trainers. The following instruments were applied: Competitive Sports Anxiety Inventory, Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale, and Questionnaire of sports achievement (ad hoc made instrument). The results show that cognitive anxiety negatively correlates with sports achievement (r = -.38, p≤ .01), as opposed to somatic anxiety that does not show a significant association with achievement. However, the highest relationship is a positive correlation between General Self-Efficacy and sports achievement (r = .51, p≤ .01). In Regression analysis, however, a significant predictor of sports achievement is only General Self-Efficacy (β = .389; p≤ .01) while the significance of cognitive anxiety is lost (β = -178; p = .339). Additional Bootstrapping analyses were conducted to examine the potential mediating effect of General Self-Efficacy in the relationship between competitive anxiety and sports achievement. We found a significant indirect effect of cognitive anxiety on achievement only through General Self-Efficacy (b= -.30, CI /-.73, -.07/), while the direct effect is not significant once the mediator is introduced. In the reversed analyses, with competitive anxiety as a mediator, the mediation was not significant, which means that high anxiety reduces sports achievement only through undermining self-efficacy, and not directly. The obtained result suggests that self-efficacy has the primary role in sports achievement. Consequently, for improving sports achievement, psychological intervention should primarily focus on increasing self-efficacy.

Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku od 11 gimnastičarki gimnastičkog kluba „Trešnjevka“ u dobi od 8 godina, kategorija kadetkinja „C“ programa ženske sportske gimnastike. Inicijalno testiranje je provedeno na početku pripremnog perioda (siječanj). Finalno mjerenje provedeno je na kraju pripremnog perioda (ožujak), prije natjecanja. Uzorak varijabli čine testovi koji procjenjuju motoričke sposobnosti i motorička znanja Izračunata je osnovna deskriptivna statistika svih varijabli, a normalnost distribucije podataka utvrđena je Kolmogorov Smirnovim testom na razini statističke značajnosti p