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In this study, dilatometry and metallography were used to investigate the effect of silicon and copper alloying on the decomposition kinetics of 54SiCr6 steel during continuous slow cooling. It is different from the published literature for using the approach of the local activation energy of the austenite decomposition Ef and the local Avrami exponent n of the volume fraction of the transformed phase f to study the kinetics of austenite-pearlitic transformation in cooled 54SiCr steel at slow cooling rates. The Johnson–Mehl–Avrami equation was used to determine the dependence of the local activation energy for austenite decomposition Ef and the local Avrami exponent n on the volume fraction of the transformed phase f. The mechanism of the austenite decomposition was analysed based on the calculated values of n. Both the local and average activation energies were used to evaluate the alloying effect, and the results were compared with those obtained from other methods. The type of microstructure formed as a result of cooling at rates of 0.5 K/s, 0.3 K/s, 0.1 K/s and 0.05 K/s was determined. The effects of changes in the cooling rate and the content of silicon (1.5–2.5 wt.%) and copper (0.12–1.47 wt.%) on the dimension of nucleation and growth kinetics of the transformed phase were studied. It was revealed that the pearlite microstructure was formed predominantly in 54SiCr6 steel as a result of continuous cooling at slow cooling rates. It was also found that alloying this steel with copper led to a significant decrease in the value of Ef, as well as to a change in the mechanism of the kinetics of the austenite-pearlite transformation, which was realised in predominantly two- and three-dimensional nucleation and growth at a constant nucleation rate. At the same time, alloying this steel with silicon led only to a slight change in Ef. The results of the study of 54SiCr steel presented the dependence of the activation energy of transformation and the local Avrami exponent on the volume fraction of the transformed phase at a given cooling rate at different copper and silicon contents. In addition, the study provides insight into the mechanism of kinetics in cooled 54SiCr steel as a function of the cooling rate.

The present work aimed to study the properties of medium-carbon steel during tempering treatment and to present the strength increase of medium-carbon spring steels by strain-assisted tempering (SAT). The effect of double-step tempering and double-step tempering with rotary swaging, also known as SAT, on the mechanical properties and microstructure was investigated. The main goal was to achieve a further enhancement of the strength of medium-carbon steels using SAT treatment. The microstructure consists of tempered martensite with transition carbides in both cases. The yield strength of the DT sample is 1656 MPa, while that of the SAT sample is about 400 MPa higher. On the contrary, plastic properties such as the elongation and reduction in area have lower values after SAT processing, about 3% and 7%, respectively, compared to the DT treatment. Grain boundary strengthening from low-angle grain boundaries can be attributed to the increase in strength. Based on X-ray diffraction analysis, a lower dislocation strengthening contribution was determined for the SAT sample compared to the double-step tempered sample.

This research studies the influence of the copper alloying of medium-carbon steel on mechanical properties after quenching and tempering at 500 °C. The microstructure was characterised using SEM, EBSD, TEM, and XRD analysis. The mechanical properties were comprehensively investigated using hardness measurements, tensile and Charpy impact tests and solid solution, grain boundary, dislocation, and precipitation strengthening contributions were estimated. Higher yield strength for Cu-alloyed steel was confirmed at about 35–73 MPa. The precipitation strengthening contribution from Cu precipitates in the range of 11–49 MPa was calculated. The interaction between Cu precipitates and dislocations retards the decrease in dislocation density. Similar values of effective grain size of martensite crystals were measured for Cu-alloyed and Cu-free steel as well. Copper alloyed steel exhibited significantly deteriorated impact toughness, total plastic elongation, and reduction of area. The size of Cu precipitates ranged from 8.3 nm after tempering at 500 °C for 6 h to 13.9 nm after tempering for 48 h.

Spring steels are typical materials where enhancement of mechanical properties can save considerable mass for transport vehicles, in this way the consumption of fuel or electric energy can be decreased. A drastic change in both the resulting microstructure and mechanical properties could be achieved due to the inclusion of strain into the tempering process after quenching. The strain assisted tempering (SAT) technology was applied, i.e., the process of quenching and following a sequence of tempering operations alternating with strain operations. After the first tempering, controlled deformation by rotary swaging was carried out with a strain of 17% (strain rate is about 120 s−1). Considerably higher strength parameters after SAT compared to conventional quenching and tempering (QT) technology were nevertheless accompanied by enhanced notch toughness at the same time by the decrease of elongation and reduction of area. However, by optimizing the process it is was also possible to achieve acceptable values for those parameters. Remarkable differences are visible in resulting microstructures of compared samples, which were revealed by metallographic analysis and X-ray diffraction measurement. While the standard microstructure of tempered martensite with transition carbides was observed after QT processing, carbideless islands with nanotwins occurred in martensitic laths after SAT processing.

The article deals with the interdependent relationship between the properties of a structure and the properties of a material, which sets the task of reducing them, even they are indistinguishable, to a certain integrity. The object of research and analysis in the article is a building structure, which is seen as an open self-organized complex structural system. In the main part, the processes of the formation of structures are considered, as well as the classification of structural elements. The article concludes with structural changes related to the self-support and self-development of the network of active elements, which allow the manifestation of adaptation effects and the design-system to function during the normalized period. The importance of self-organization processes during the development and operation of construction systems allow us to attribute it to a self-organizing system. Thus, the building structure can be represented as an open and complex self-organizing system.

Requirements for mechanical properties of steels are constantly increasing, and the combination of quenching and tempering is the method generally chosen for achieving high strength in medium carbon steels. This study examines the influence of various silicon contents from 1.06 to 2.49 wt% and the addition of copper (1.47 wt%) on the behavior of 1.7102 steel starting with the as-quenched state and ending with the tempered condition at the temperature of 500 °C. The microstructure was characterized by SEM and TEM, the phase composition and dislocation density were studied by XRD analysis, and mechanical properties were assessed by tensile and hardness testing, whereas tempered martensite embrittlement was assessed using Charpy impact test and the activation energy of carbide precipitation was determined by dilatometry. The benefit of copper consists in the improvement of reduction of area by tempering between 150 and 300 °C. The increase in strength due to copper precipitation occurs upon tempering at 500 °C, where strength is generally low due to a drop in dislocation density and changes in microstructure. The increasing content of silicon raises strength and dislocation density in steels, but the plastic properties of steel are limited. It was found that the silicon content of 1.5 wt% is optimum for the materials under study.

Understanding the tempering behavior of medium carbon steels is mandatory if their mechanical properties are to be improved. For an optimal technology to be developed for this purpose, a substantial experimental basis is needed to extract quantitative information on the microstructure of the tempered material. This paper reports on the characterization of microstructural changes induced by tempering in medium-carbon steels alloyed with Si, Cr, Cu, and Mn using state-of-the-art experimental techniques. Complementarities among these techniques are highlighted. The evolution of transition carbides, cementite, and copper precipitates is described using data from X-ray diffraction, small and ultra-small angle neutron diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and dilatometry observation. The effects of silicon, chromium, and copper on the mechanism of carbide and copper precipitation are discussed. The considerable changes found in the size and volume of copper precipitates correlate well with the difference in the yield stress between tempered steels with and without copper.