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This chapter presents the results of our empirical analysis using the recent data from the Longitudinal Survey of Young People in England (LSYPE), which is a panel study of young people aged between 13 and 14 in 2004 that is annually repeated. We develop an economic-theoretical framework with applied health econometric methods and use binary regression models to explain the probability of reporting a risky form of lifestyle at age 18 to 19. We consider seven risky forms of lifestyles, namely early sexual intercourse, teenage parenthood, early smoking, alcohol use, frequency of getting drunk, cannabis smoking and drug use. We undertake a hierarchical explanatory analysis where we include a larger vector of independent variables at each of the three steps of the analysis. This multi-step analysis enables us to understand the underlying mechanisms of the influence of family structure, especially lone-parent family, on the likelihood of adopting a range of unhealthy lifestyles in adolescence and whether family structure has a direct effect on those lifestyles, or an indirect effect, through its influence on other adolescents’ social characteristics.

Experimental studies have showed that hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells are susceptible to cytolysis of interleukin (IL)-2-activated lymphocytes. Moreover, our previous studies demonstrated that the pineal neurohormone melatonin (MLT) may enhance IL-2 efficacy. On this basis, a study was started with low-dose IL-2 (3 million U/day subcutaneously for 6 days/week for 4 weeks) plus MLT (50 mg/day orally every day given in the evening) as a first-line therapy of unresectable HCC. The study included 14 patients. Objective tumour regressions were obtained in 5/14 (36%) patients (one complete response, four partial responses), with a median duration of 7+ months. 6 patients had stable disease, while the other 3 progressed. Toxicity was low in all cases. This study shows that the neuroimmunotherapy with low-dose IL-2 plus MLT is a new well-tolerated and effective therapy of advanced HCC.

The advanced tumours of the digestive tract are generally less responsive to conventional chemotherapies. Moreover, preliminary results with IL-2 immunotherapy also seem to show a low efficacy. On the basis of our previous studies suggesting s synergistic action between IL-2 and some neurohormones, such as the pineal indole MLT, a clinical trial was performed to investigate the clinical efficacy and tolerability of an immunotherapy with IL-2 plus MLT in patients with advanced neoplasms of the digestive tract. The study included 35 patients (colorectal cancer: 14; gastric cancer: 8; hepatocarcinoma: 6; pancreas adenocarcinoma: 7). Distant organ metastases were present in 31/35 patients. MLT was given orally at a daily dose of 50 mg at 8.00 p.m., starting 7 days before IL-2, which was given subcutaneously at a dose of 3 million IU/day at 8.00 p.m. for 6 days/week for 4 weeks, corresponding to one cycle of immunotherapy. In nonprogressed patients, a second cycle was given after a 21-day rest period. A complete response was achieved in two patients (gastric cancer: 1; hepatocarcinoma: 1). Six other patients obtained a partial response: (gastric cancer: 2; hepatocarcinoma: 2; colon cancer: 1; pancreas cancer: 1). Therefore, the overall response rate was 8/35 (23%). Stable disease was obtained in 11/35 (31%) patients, whereas the remaining 16 patients (46%) progressed. The response rate was significantly higher in untreated patients than in those previously treated with chemotherapy. Toxicity was low in all patients, who received the treatment as a home therapy. This study shows that the immunotherapy with low-dose IL-2 plus the pineal hormone MLT is a new well tolerated and effective therapy of advanced tumours of the digestive tract, mainly in gastric cancer and hepatocarcinoma.