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Even though agricultural and land sector emissions contribute almost one‐quarter of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere, it has been a long struggle to properly recognise and discuss within the UNFCCC framework the contribution that these sectors can make to the global mitigation effort. This is despite the fact that many countries’ Nationally Determined Contributions highlight the potential for abatement in these sectors, though commitments are often made contingent on receipt of external finance. A major breakthrough occurred with the adoption of the Koronivia Joint Work Programme on Agriculture at COP23 in 2017. The two UNFCCC subsidiary bodies charged with implementing this work programme will report back on its outcomes at the COP26 in Glasgow in November. The UK government’s Campaign for Nature, under its COP Presidency to highlight the importance of nature‐based solutions, can also help to strengthen the focus on the importance of these sectors. This article describes the background to these discussions and discusses possible outcomes at COP26 of relevance to the agriculture and land sectors. Meme si les emissions du secteur agricole et terrestre contribuent a pres d'un quart des emissions anthropiques totales de gaz a effet de serre dans l'atmosphere, la lutte a ete longue pour reconnaitre et discuter correctement dans le cadre de la CCNUCC la contribution que ces secteurs peuvent apporter a l'effort mondial d'attenuation du changement climatique. Ceci malgre le fait que les contributions determinees au niveau national de nombreux pays mettent en evidence le potentiel de reduction dans ces secteurs, bien que les engagements soient souvent subordonnes a la reception de financements exterieurs. Une avancee majeure s'est produite avec l'adoption du programme de travail conjoint de Koronivia sur l'agriculture lors de la COP23 en 2017. Les deux organes subsidiaires de la CCNUCC charges de la mise en œuvre de ce programme de travail rendront compte de ses resultats lors de la COP26 a Glasgow en novembre 2021. La campagne du gouvernement britannique pour la nature, sous sa presidence de la COP pour souligner l'importance des solutions fondees sur la nature, peut egalement aider a renforcer l'accent mis sur l'importance de ces secteurs. Cet article decrit le contexte de ces discussions et examine les resultats possibles de la COP26 pertinents pour les secteurs agricole et terrestre. Obwohl die Emissionen aus der Landwirtschaft und von landwirtschaftlichen Flachen fast ein Viertel der gesamten anthropogenen Treibhausgasemissionen in die Atmosphare ausmachen, war es unter UNFCCC‐Rahmenbedingungen ein langer und schwieriger Weg, den Beitrag, den diese beiden Sektoren zu den globalen Klimaschutzbemuhungen leisten konnen, angemessen anzuerkennen und zu diskutieren. Und das, obwohl die Nationalen Beitrage (Nationally Determined Contributions) vieler Lander das Minderungspotenzial der Landwirtschaft und von landwirtschaftlichen Flachen hervorheben. Dennoch werden die damit verbundenen Verpflichtungserklarungen oft vom Erhalt externer Finanzmittel abhangig gemacht. Ein wichtiger Durchbruch gelang mit der Verabschiedung des Gemeinsamen Arbeitsprogramms zur Landwirtschaft ‐ dem Koronivia‐Arbeitsprogramm ‐ auf der COP23 (23. UN‐Klimakonferenz) im Jahr 2017. Die beiden mit der Umsetzung dieses Arbeitsprogramms beauftragten Unterorganisationen der UNFCCC werden auf der COP26 in Glasgow im November uber die Ergebnisse berichten. Die von der britischen Regierung im Rahmen der COP‐Prasidentschaft ins Leben gerufene "Campaign for Nature", die die Bedeutung von umweltfreundlichen Losungen hervorheben soll, kann ebenfalls dazu beitragen, die Aufmerksamkeit fur die Bedeutung dieser Sektoren zu verstarken. Der vorliegende Beitrag beschreibt den Hintergrund der Debatten und erortert mogliche Ergebnisse der COP26, die fur die Landwirtschaft und die landwirtschaftlichen Flachen von Bedeutung sind.

In diesem Beitrag wird die Leistung des EU‐Nahrungsmittelsektors wahrend der fruhen Phase der Covid‐19‐Pandemie untersucht. Die vorlaufigen Erkenntnisse aus der fruhen Zeit des Lockdowns von Marz bis Juni 2020 untermauern die Erkenntnis, dass der Nahrungsmittelsektor der EU – abgesehen von einigen Erfahrungen mit leeren Supermarktregalen in den ersten Tagen des Lockdowns, die durch Hamsterkaufe verursacht wurden – bemerkenswert widerstandsfahig war. Landwirtschaftliche Betriebe, verarbeitende Unternehmen und der Einzelhandel in der EU konnten die Lebensmittelversorgung der EU‐Verbraucherinnen und ‐Verbraucher aufrechterhalten. Daruber hinaus haben sie sich auch auf die durch die zeitweilige Schliesung der Gastronomiebetriebe verursachte Nachfrageverschiebung eingestellt. Die Agrarpreise sind nach der Einfuhrung des Lockdowns gesunken. Dennoch hielt sich der Preisruckgang, abgesehen von einigen besonderen Ausnahmen, wie z.B. Blumen, in Grenzen. Im Gegensatz dazu verzeichneten die Lebensmittelpreise einen Anstieg; dies scheint jedoch ein vorubergehendes Phanomen gewesen zu sein. Die Reaktion auf die Pandemie hat die Grenzen des Krisenreaktionsmechanismus der EU aufgedeckt, insbesondere dort, wo eine Stutzung des Marktes erforderlich werden konnte. Das Argument einiger fuhrender EU‐Politikerinnen und ‐Politiker, dass regionale Ernahrungssysteme gefordert werden sollten, um die Widerstandsfahigkeit des Nahrungsmittelsektors gegen kunftige Krisen zu erhohen, ist empirisch nicht gesichert. Politikmasnahmen sollten in Zukunft Unternehmen beim Aufbau robusterer und widerstandsfahigerer Lieferketten unterstutzen. Dahingegen sollten sie es vermeiden, die Versorgungssicherheit mit Lebensmitteln zu untergraben, die auf falschen Vorstellungen daruber beruhen, wie die Lieferketten wahrend der Covid‐19‐andemie funktioniert haben.

Ireland will be the EU country, after the UK itself, most affected by the economic fall‐out from Brexit. Its agri‐food sector, in particular, has most to fear from the consequences of a disorderly or ‘no‐deal' Brexit. The increased probability of a no‐deal Brexit under Boris Johnson, UK Prime Minister who has succeeded Prime Minister Theresa May, raises three issues for the Irish government. The first is whether to accept some relaxation of the conditions around the backstop in the Withdrawal Agreement if this were the price of UK approval of this Agreement. The second is to prepare for the adverse economic impacts likely from a disorderly Brexit in which the UK leaves without a deal, not least for the agri‐food sector. The third is to work out how to manage the Ireland‐Northern Ireland border in the event of a hard Brexit, given its insistence that it does not plan checks along the land border and nor is it planning for checks in the Irish Sea. This Point de Vue discusses how the Irish government is addressing each of these challenges. Apres le Royaume‐Uni, l'Irlande sera le pays de l'Union europeenne le plus touche par les retombees economiques du Brexit. Son secteur agroalimentaire, en particulier, a le plus a craindre des consequences d'un Brexit desordonne ou «sans accord». La probabilite accrue d'un Brexit sans accord sous le gouvernement du Boris Johnson, le Premier ministre britannique qui succede a Theresa May, souleve trois questions pour le gouvernement irlandais. Le premier est de savoir s'il faut accepter un assouplissement des conditions de securite minimales dans l'accord de retrait si cela etait le prix a payer pour que le Royaume‐Uni approuve cet accord. La seconde consiste a se preparer aux effets economiques defavorables d'un Brexit desordonne au cours duquel le Royaume‐Uni partira sans accord, notamment dans le secteur agroalimentaire. La troisieme consiste a determiner comment gerer la frontiere entre l'Irlande et l'Irlande du Nord en cas d'un Brexit dur, compte tenu de son insistance a ne pas organiser de controles ni le long de la frontiere terrestre ni en mer d'Irlande. Ce Point de Vue explique comment le gouvernement irlandais s'attaque a chacun de ces defis. Irland wird das EU‐Land sein, welches nach dem Vereinigten Konigreich selbst am starksten von den wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen des Brexits betroffen sein wird. Vor allem der irische Agrar‐ und Ernahrungssektor hat die Folgen eines ungeordneten oder No‐Deal‐Brexits zu befurchten. Die erhohte Wahrscheinlichkeit fur einen No‐Deal Brexit unter Boris Johnson, dem britischen Premierminister, der die Nachfolge von Premierministerin Theresa May antritt, wirft fur die irische Regierung drei Fragen auf. Die erste ist, ob man eine gewisse Lockerung der Bedingungen des im Austrittsabkommen verankerten Backstops akzeptieren sollte, wenn dies der Preis fur die Zustimmung des Vereinigten Konigreichs zu diesem Abkommen ware. Zweitens geht es darum, sich auf die negativen wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen eines ungeordneten Brexits – nicht zuletzt auf den Agrar‐ und Lebensmittelsektor – vorzubereiten, bei dem das Vereinigte Konigreich ohne Abkommen geht. Drittens gilt es, herauszufinden, wie die Grenze zwischen Irland und Nordirland im Falle eines harten Brexits verwaltet werden kann, da Irland darauf besteht, weder Kontrollen entlang der inneririschen Landesgrenze noch Kontrollen in der Irischen See einzufuhren. In diesem Standpunkt wird erortert, wie die irische Regierung jede einzelne dieser Herausforderungen angeht.

The fact that the EU and the United States are revising their farm legislation at the same time provides a good opportunity to compare the direction of farm policy in the two jurisdictions. In both cases policy developments are required to satisfy budgetary constraints, which on this occasion appear to be more stringent for the EU. Farm‐oriented spending in both regions continues to be largely directed to farm income support – the farm safety net in the US and direct payments in the EU. Policy changes in the US have aimed to increase the likelihood that financial support will be provided to farmers. The EU, at least in the rhetorical justification for its legal proposal, gives greater priority to incentivising farmers to adopt practices friendlier to the environment and is more focused on climate mitigation and adaptation. However, the key innovation in the EU proposal revolves around the management of the policy, with the aim of steering the decisions of Member States through a results‐based rather than compliance‐based approach. This introduction highlights some background and context for the articles to follow that explore these themes in greater depth.

The UK exited the EU on 31 January 2020, with a transition period agreed as part of the Withdrawal Agreement. During this transition period the UK and the EU will decide on their future trading relationship. No matter what form this relationship takes, there will be disturbances to agri‐food markets. This study analyses four different scenarios with increasing barriers to trade, ranging from a very close relationship similar to the European Economic Area to a distant relationship in which the UK and EU trade on Most Favoured Nation terms, using the EU focused global agricultural sector model CAPRI. In the UK, food prices will increase in all scenarios, making consumers in the UK the biggest losers. Only in a free trade agreement scenario does the UK show an unambiguous positive net welfare gain in just the agri‐food sector. In the case of the European Economic Area scenario, which assumes continued access to the single market, the net welfare impact would depend on the size of the UK’s continued contribution to the EU. In the EU, declining food prices would benefit consumers but the sum of the loss in farmers’ incomes and the UK’s EU CAP contribution would be much greater than the consumer’s gain. These impacts in agricultural markets under different future trade arrangements will also be influenced by the UK’s agricultural policy changes in direct payments as well as by possible further UK trade liberalisation after the end of the transition period.

Sapropels S5 and S7 formed in the semi-enclosed Eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS) during peak interglacial periods MIS5e and MIS7a, respectively, are considered among the most strongly developed Quaternary sapropels. This study investigates the redox dynamics of the water column during their formation, via Fe isotope and Fe speciation studies of cores taken at 2550 m depth at site ODP-967. Both sapropels show an inverse correlation between δ56Fe and FeT/Al, with slopes mostly matching that found for the Black Sea, pointing to a benthic shelf to basin shuttle of Fe and subsequent precipitation of Fe sulphides in euxinic bottom waters. An exception to these Black Sea-type trends occurs during the later, peak, stages of S7, where the negative δ56Fe - FeT/Al slope shallows. Fe speciation studies reveal that the dominant highly reactive Fe phase (FeHR) in the sapropels is pyrite, with Fe (oxyhydr)oxides forming the second major mineral component. Correspondingly, FeHR/FeT plots show increased strengthening of anoxic water conditions during the passage from pre-sapropel sediment into the sapropel. Nevertheless, despite the evidence for euxinic conditions from both Fe isotopes and high Mo concentrations in the sapropel, Fepy/FeHR ratios remain below values commonly used to identify water column euxinia. This apparent contradiction is ascribed to the sedimentary preservation of a high flux of crystalline Fe (oxyhydr)oxide minerals to the basin, which resulted in a relatively low degree of sulphidation, despite the presence of euxinic bottom waters. Thus, the operationally defined ferruginous/euxinic boundary for EMS sapropels is better placed at Fepy/FeHR = 0.6, which is somewhat below the usually ascribed lower limit of 0.7. Consistent with the significant presence of crystalline Fe (oxyhydr)oxides, the change in the δ56Fe - FeT/Al slope during peak S7 is ascribed to an enhanced monsoon-driven flux of detrital Fe(III) oxides from the River Nile into the EMS basin and comcomitant diagenetic sulphidation. Euxinic water column conditions in sapropel S5 and S7 are interpreted here to reflect the positive balance between dissolved sulphide formation and rates of reductive dissolution of Fe (oxyhydr)oxide minerals. Both of these parameters in turn depend on the extent to which water overturn times are reduced and export productivity increased during sapropel formation.

Authigenic uranium isotope compositions of Holocene sapropel S1 (delta U-238(auth) = + 0.10 to + 0.52 %; ODP core 967, 2550 mbsl) are significantly higher than the proposed upper boundary (+0.2%) associated with the transport-porewater diffusion model for sediment uranium uptake. It is shown that these high delta U-238(aut) values are compatible with rapid initial slowdown of thermohaline overturning and the development of an anoxic water column. These conditions would favour U uptake in an organic-rich floccule layer overlying the sediment-water interface. The high delta U-238(aut) values correlate with low delta Mo-98(auth) values (+0.02 to -0.88%), interpreted to reflect weakly euxinic conditions controlled by thiomolybdate-molybdate solution equilibria. The S1 data contrast markedly with published data from last interglacial sapropel S5 from the same core, which show delta U-238(aut) and delta Mo-98(auth) characteristics compatible with a restricted euxinic basin due to progressive slowdown in the thermohaline circulation. The U-Mo isotope data for S1 are similar to a range of published palaeo-settings. Sapropels are therefore shown to be useful templates for the unravelling of the interplay between productivity and deep water renewal times in ancient settings., Geochemical Perspectives Letters, 15, ISSN:2410-339X, ISSN:2410-3403

Pressure to embed environmental and climate action even more centrally into the CAP has also moved up the political agenda because of the EU's commitment to action on the Paris Climate Agreement and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Highly resolved, well-dated paleoclimate records from the southern South African coast are needed to contextualize the evolution of the highly diverse extratropical plant communities of the Greater Cape Floristic Region (GCFR) and to assess the environmental impacts on early human hunter-gatherers. We present new speleothem stable oxygen and carbon isotope ratios (δ18Oc and δ13C) from two caves at Pinnacle Point, South Africa, covering the time between 330 and 43 ka. Composite δ18Oc and δ13C records were constructed for Staircase Cave and PP29 by combining all stable isotope analyses into a single time series and smoothing by a 3-point running mean. δ18Oc and δ13C values record changes in rainfall seasonality and the proportions of C3 and C4 plants in the vegetation, respectively. We show that in general increased summer rainfall brought about a wider spread of C4 grasses and retreat of the C3 plant–dominated GCFR communities. The occurrence of summer rainfall on the southern coast of South Africa was linked to total rainfall amounts in the interior region through tropical temperate troughs. These rainfall systems shifted the southern coastal climate toward more summer (winter) rainfall when precession was high (low) and/or the westerlies were in a northern (southern) position.

A fundamental issue in the interpretation of speleothem calcite δ18Occ records is the correct partitioning of the effects of temperature and water δ18O variations. This study explores the paleo-environmental evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS) region using Soreq Cave speleothems in the last 160 ka, a period covering glacial MIS6 to the present, through the independent determinations of temperatures via carbonate clumped isotopes (Δ47) and fluid inclusion δ18Ow, δDw and d-excess values of cave water entrapped in the speleothems. The observed general agreement between the trends in water δ18Ow composition directly measured from fluid inclusions and calculated from Δ47 temperatures and δ18Occ support the robustness of the data. Δ47 temperatures, derived using a revised thermometer calibration that includes recent modifications in 17O correction, vary from high values of 20–22 °C during interglacial periods to low values of 11–12 °C in cold glacial and stadial periods. Temperatures of 19–22 °C are observed during the time of deposition in the EMS of sapropel S5 in the last interglacial MIS5e period and sapropel S1 in the early Holocene, immediately following Terminations II and I, respectively. The Soreq Cave Δ47 temperatures generally agree with previously estimated EM sea surface temperatures, in support of the absence of a significant land-sea temperature gradient. Cave water δ18Ow values show large variations (from ∼-3 to −7.5‰), with high glacial and low interglacial values. These variations are largely explained by changes in Mediterranean Sea water composition due to glacial ice melting and freshwater input during sapropel periods, combined with the effect of rainfall amounts during interglacial periods. An analysis of relative timing shows that temperature rise precedes hydrological changes in the initial stages of Termination events. Fluid inclusion d-excess values show clear variations between values similar to the Global Meteoric Water Line during cold periods and values similar to the local Eastern Mediterranean Meteoric Water Line (EMMWL) in warm periods.

Early Ahmarian, Levantine Aurignacian and Post-Levantine Aurignacian archeological assemblages show that the karstic Manot Cave, located 5 km east of the Mediterranean coast in the Western Galilee region of Israel, was intensively occupied during the Early Upper Paleolithic. The coexistence of these rich archaeological layers with speleothems in Manot Cave provides a window of opportunity for determining the relationships between climatic conditions and the nature of human activity and mobility patterns in the Western Galilee region during the Early Upper Paleolithic period. This study, based on four stalagmites that grew almost continuously from ∼75 to 26.5 ka, covers most of the last glacial, and overlaps with the human occupation of the cave. The speleothems oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotopic records indicate that climate and environmental conditions fluctuated during the last glacial, some of which correspond with Dansgaard–Oeschger (D-O) cycles 12, 10, 7 and Heinrich (H) events VI and V. Consistent with independent evidence from botanic and faunal remains, these climatic shifts brought about significant environmental changes in the region, ranging from dominant thick Mediterranean forest to more open landscape. A good correlation with less negative δ13C values is most pronounced during the Early Ahmarian time period, but there was also a change to less negative δ13C values during the Levantine Aurignacian and Post-Levantine Aurignacian industries in the Levant. These positive δ13C shifts suggest that environmental transformation towards a more open grassy landscape dominated by C4 vegetation might have played an important role in the development of these cultural entities (mainly the Early Ahmarian) in Manot Cave region.

Promoting rural jobs goes well beyond agricultural policy, but targeted agricultural policies can play a role. The key lesson is to invest in increasing the sector's supply of both market and non†market goods and services, recognising that the jobs created will often be in related non†farm sectors of the rural economy. Subsidising employment in low†productivity agriculture is neither a sensible nor sustainable job†creation strategy. It makes far more sense to focus on ‘smart’ agricultural support and investments which help farmers and local communities to overcome specific barriers and constraints to improve their productivity. Many investment†promoting support measures can already be provided under CAP rules today although they are often constrained by funding limitations, for example, in Member States’ Rural Development Programmes. If policymakers want the CAP to do more to maximise its contribution to jobs and growth, these productive supports should be prioritised in the coming CAP negotiations. At the same time, there should be a greater focus on the training and skill needs for the existing agricultural workforce, including paid workers who are often forgotten in farm policy discussions.La promotion de l'emploi rural va bien au†delA de la politique agricole, mais des mesures de politique agricole ciblA©es peuvent y contribuer. La principale leA§on est d'investir dans l'augmentation de l'offre de biens et services marchands et non marchands, en reconnaissant que les emplois crA©A©s seront souvent dans des secteurs connexes non agricoles de l’A©conomie rurale. Subventionner l'emploi dans une agriculture A faible productivitA© n'est une stratA©gie de crA©ation d'emplois ni raisonnable ni durable. Il est beaucoup plus logique de privilA©gier des mesures de soutien et des investissements agricoles «intelligents» qui aident les agriculteurs et les communautA©s locales A surmonter des obstacles et contraintes particuliers afin d'amA©liorer leur productivitA©. De nombreuses mesures de soutien favorisant l'investissement peuvent dA©jA Aatre accordA©es dans le cadre des rA¨gles de la PAC actuelle, bien qu'elles soient souvent assorties de conditions en termes de financement, par exemple, dans les programmes de dA©veloppement rural des A‰tats membres. Si les dA©cideurs de l'action publique veulent que la PAC soit plus A mAame de contribuer A l'emploi et A la croissance, ils devraient prioriser ces mesures de soutien productif lors des prochaines nA©gociations de la PAC. Dans le mAame temps, il faudrait accorder une plus grande attention aux besoins en formation et en compA©tences de la main†d’A“uvre agricole existante, y compris les salariA©s qui sont souvent oubliA©s dans les discussions sur les politiques agricoles.Die FA¶rderung von BeschA¤ftigung auf dem Land geht A¼ber die Agrarpolitik hinaus, dennoch kA¶nnte eine zielgerichtete Agrarpolitik diesbezA¼glich eine Rolle spielen. Die wichtigste Lehre besteht darin, in einen Anstieg der Bereitstellung von sowohl marktbestimmte, als auch nicht†marktbestimmte Waren und Dienstleistungen durch den landwirtschaftlichen Sektor zu investieren, wobei erkannt werden muss, dass die ArbeitsplA¤tze, die dadurch geschaffen werden, oftmals in den zugehA¶rigen nicht†landwirtschaftlichen Sektoren der lA¤ndlichen Wirtschaft angesiedelt sind. Die Subvention von BeschA¤ftigung in landwirtschaftlichen Bereichen mit geringer ProduktivitA¤t ist weder eine sinnvolle, noch eine nachhaltige Strategie zur Schaffung von ArbeitsplA¤tzen. Es ist weitaus sinnvoller, auf die UnterstA¼tzung von und Investitionen in „intelligente†Landwirtschaft zu setzen, die Landwirtinnen und Landwirten sowie lA¤ndlichen Gemeinden hilft, bestimmte Hemmnisse und EinschrA¤nkungen zu A¼berwinden und ihre ProduktivitA¤t zu verbessern. Viele investitionsfA¶rdernde UnterstA¼tzungsmaAŸnahmen kA¶nnen bereits heute unter den GAP†Bestimmungen, zum Beispiel durch die lA¤ndlichen Entwicklungsprogramme der Mitgliedsstaaten, bereitgestellt werden, obwohl sie hA¤ufig durch FA¶rdergrenzen limitiert werden. Wenn politische EntscheidungstrA¤ger von der GAP verlangen, mehr fA¼r die ErhA¶hung ihres Beitrags zu ArbeitsplA¤tzen und Wachstum zu tun, dann sollten diese zielfA¼hrenden UnterstA¼tzungsmaAŸnahmen wA¤hrend der kA¼nftigen GAP†Verhandlungen PrioritA¤t haben. Gleichzeitig sollte ein grA¶AŸeres Augenmerk auf den Ausbildungs†und Qualifizierungsbedarf der bestehenden landwirtschaftlichen ArbeitskrA¤fte, einschlieAŸlich der SaisonarbeitskrA¤fte, die oft in den agrarpolitischen Debatten vergessen werden, gelegt werden.

Summary The Irish agri-food sector is particularly exposed to the consequences of the UK's departure from the EU given that the UK is the destination for 37 per cent of its exports. This article discusses the main channels whereby Brexit may impact this trade. They include the impact of possible further depreciation of sterling and the loss of the protected market status that Irish exporters currently enjoy on their sales on the UK market. There is the possibility that tariffs may be imposed on trade flows between the two countries as well as higher trade costs when either exporting to or importing from the UK. There would also be potential disruption of supply chains on the island of Ireland and the particular difficulties of policing the land border between the North and South of Ireland. Solutions to address some of these problems are available, but will take time to negotiate. Even if the worst outcomes can be avoided, Brexit is likely to have significant structural implications for Irish agriculture. The erosion of the value of privileged access to the UK market will require structural adjustments both in terms of market diversification as well as farm-level production.

Diagenesis and epigenetic remobilization frequently obscure the original depositional environment of sediments that have been affected by Cu- Mn- mineralization. Such is the case for the sedimentary Cu and Mn ores of the Cambrian Timna Formation in Southern Israel, where different interpretations of field, petrographic and geochemical data have led to conflicting genetic models. In this study we show how Sr and Pb isotopic data can help unravel the origins and complex processes involved in the sedimentary-hosted Cu- Mn- mineralization. Applying Pb and Sr isotopic systems to the various host rock types, two petrographical and chemically distinct types of Mn nodules (referred to as A and B) and reduced and oxidized Cu minerals of the Timna Formation indicates that two major solution types were involved. The first solution is depleted in Th and enriched with U, with a constant 208Pb/204Pb ratio and single U source as reflected by the correlation between 206Pb/204Pb vs. 207Pb/204Pb. The second solution has higher Th and lower U concentrations; thus 208Pb/204Pb ratios significantly vary whereas the 206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb ratios remain relatively constant. The low Th/high U solution is associated with the deposition of Type A Mn nodules, whose 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.7093 ± 0.0005 matches that of the Cambrian Sea. Thus, in keeping with previous petrographic and mineralogical evidence, the isotope data are consistent with primary Mn nodule formation under oxidizing conditions during early diagenesis. In contrast, the second high Th/low U solution is associated with the transformation of primary Type A to epigenetic Type B Mn nodules. During these later processes, U was leached from Type A Mn nodules to form secondary Pb enriched Type B nodules. The Pb isotope composition of these nodules clearly shows that the epigenetic solutions were significantly different from those of a major phase of Oligocene-Miocene Fe- mineralization that affected the bedrocks adjacent to the Dead Sea Transform. Cu- Mn- mineralization exhibits more complex isotopic signatures. Cu-sulfides (mainly covellite) deposited during early diagenesis under reducing conditions, and although their 87Sr/86Sr ratio in places is 0.709, as a whole, their Sr-isotope ratios reflect their location rather than the Cambrian sea water signature, as clearly evident from their Pb isotope compositions. During later epigenetic stages, copper sulfides were altered to form malachite and paratacamite, whose Pb isotope compositions show that the oxidizing solutions underwent fluid-rock interaction with their host rocks, particularly during the transport of Pb in lower pH chloride solutions. Overall, it is evident that the combined use of the Sr and Pb isotope systems allows clarification of the various primary and secondary processes involved in the Cambrian Timna mineralization Cu- Mn- mineralization, and particularly the important identification of the involvement of Cambrian sea water in the primary ore formation processes.

Articles 38–44 (Title III) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) govern the European Union (EU)’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Article 38 of the Treaty of Rome in 1957 laid down the establishment of a common market for agricultural products and Article 39 set up a CAP, which was subsequently largely decoupled from the rules of the other common markets. This chapter outlines the historical development of the CAP, the internal market for agriculture and its relationship to the bioeconomy. It illustrates the different steps taken in the agricultural market as well as the policy choices which lie behind it.

Brexit may compromise diet-related health in the United Kingdom — but the risks could be mitigated with trade agreements, subsidy reform and nutrition policy.

Disputes over food safety standards –what in the language of trade policy are called sanitary and phytosanitary standards (SPS) – have been at the heart of many transatlantic trade rows between the US and the EU. Examples include the EU bans on the import of hormone–treated beef, on pork treated with growth–promoting additives, or on poultry washed in antimicrobial rinses to reduce the amount of microbes on meat. As a result, the potential impact of the ongoing negotiations to reach a Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) free trade agreement between the US and EU on EU food standards has, rightly, attracted a lot of attention and no little anxiety. Opposition to “Chlorhühnchen” has become the rallying–call for anti–TTIP activists in many countries. NGOs argue that “TTIP will sacrifice food safety for faster trade”. Critics highlight possible procedural rules requiring transparency of decision–making and early warning mechanisms which would give interested parties (including of course business firms and lobby groups) the opportunity to comment on planned rule–making which it is argued are likely to lead to ‘regulatory chill’.

Summary This article examines the implications of a possible Brexit for the EU's Common Agricultural Policy and agri-food sector. Five potential ways in which these implications might be felt are discussed: (1) implications for the future orientation of the CAP in the absence of the UK; (2) implications for the EU budget and the share devoted to the CAP; (3) implications for the future regulatory environment for EU farm and food businesses; (4) implications for agricultural research; and (5) implications for future EU trade and trade relationships. Because the UK is a net contributor to the EU budget, a net importer of agri-food products from the EU, and punches above its weight in research terms, its withdrawal would have broadly negative effects for the EU farm and food sector. Whether the absence of the UK's voice in the Council of Ministers when discussing future agricultural, trade and regulatory policies would be counted as positive or negative depends on one's policy preferences in these areas. For those advocating a market-oriented agricultural policy and a regulatory regime strongly anchored in science its withdrawal would be a loss. Cet article examine les repercussions d'un eventuel Brexit sur la Politique Agricole Commune et le secteur agroalimentaire de l'Union europeenne. Il considere cinq canaux de transmission eventuels : (1) les repercussions sur les orientations futures de la PAC en l'absence du Royaume-Uni; (2) les repercussions sur le budget communautaire et la part dediee a la PAC; (3) les repercussions sur l'environnement reglementaire pour les exploitations agricoles et les entreprises alimentaire de l'Union europeenne; (4) les repercussions sur la recherche agricole; et (5) les repercussions sur l'avenir des echanges et des relations commerciales de l'Union europeenne. Comme le Royaume-Unis est un contributeur net au budget communautaire, un importateur net de produits agroalimentaires en provenance de l’UE et qu'il dispose d'un systeme de recherche superieur a son poids economique, son retrait aurait des effets largement negatifs sur le secteur agricole et alimentaire de l’UE. L'absence de la voix du Royaume-Uni au Conseil des ministres lors des discussions sur l'avenir des politiques agricole, commerciale et reglementaire serait consideree positive ou negative selon les preferences de chacun dans ces domaines de l'action publique. Pour ceux qui pronent une politique agricole orientee par le marche et un regime reglementaire fonde sur la science, le retrait de Royaume-Uni serait une perte. Dieser Beitrag untersucht die Auswirkungen eines moglichen Brexit auf die Gemeinsame Agrarpolitik und die Agrar- und Ernahrungswirtschaft der EU. Es werden funf mogliche Szenarien erortert, unter denen diese Auswirkungen spurbar werden konnten: (1) Auswirkungen auf die kunftige Ausrichtung der GAP bei einem Ausstieg Grosbritanniens aus der EU; (2) Auswirkungen auf den EU-Haushalt und den fur die GAP vorgesehenen Anteil; (3) Auswirkungen auf das kunftige Regulierungsumfeld fur europaische Unternehmen der Agrar- und Ernahrungswirtschaft; (4) Auswirkungen auf die Agrarforschung; und (5) Auswirkungen auf den kunftigen Handel und die Handelsbeziehungen der EU. Da Grosbritannien ein Nettozahler zum EU-Haushalt und ein Nettoimporteur von Produkten der Agrar- und Ernahrungswirtschaft ist sowie sich in der Forschung uberproportional engagiert, hatte ein Ausstieg umfassende negative Auswirkungen auf die europaische Agrar- und Ernahrungswirtschaft. Ob man das Fehlen der britischen Stimme im Ministerrat zu Fragen der kunftigen Agrar-, Handels- und Regulierungspolitik positiv oder negativ bewertet, hangt von den personlichen politischen Praferenzen in diesen Bereichen ab. Fur die Befurworter einer marktorientierten Agrarpolitik und eines fest in der Wissenschaft verankerten Regulierungssystems ware dies ein Verlust.

Given the steep present-day climatic gradients in southern South Africa, comparative studies of its coastal and inland paleoclimate provide important insight into the region's spatial climate dynamics. We present a comparative study of new speleothem stable oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotopic composition from Efflux Cave (EC; 113–19 ka, hiatus between 105 and 94 ka) in the Little Karoo inland basin and Herolds Bay Cave (HBC; 93–62 ka) at the boundary between the Cape coastal lowlands and the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain. Gaussian kernel based cross-correlation analyses against palaeoclimate proxy records show that rainfall seasonality at EC is related to rainfall amount in the South African interior, whereas HBC is similar to the South African east coast. Our new proxy records, corroborated by archaeological evidence from the Cape coastal lowlands and the Little Karoo, suggest that in both regions, surface water was readily available and grassland ecosystems with variable amounts of C4 and C3 grasses as well as fynbos communities could be found nearby. Cross-correlation analyses of the new records from EC and HBC compared to previously published speleothem records from southern South Africa show only limited statistical correlation. However, there are some similarities in overall trends of palaeoclimate change in the Cape coastal lowlands and the Little Karoo whereby Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5b (mainly Greenland Interstadial 22) and 4 generally have more summer rainfall and higher abundances of C4 vegetation than MIS 5a and MIS 3.

Present-day Mediterranean deep-waters are well oxygenated, but the episodic formation of organic-rich sediments (sapropels) indicates that this pattern was frequently perturbed in the past. Both high export productivity and disruption of the thermohaline circulation, leading to reduced deep-water ventilation, have been proposed to account for sapropel deposition and anoxia. The last interglacial sapropel S5 is considered one of the most strongly developed. Here, we apply the redox-sensitive Mo and U (elemental and isotope) systems to quantify the intensity of anoxic deep-water conditions in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea from ODP core 967 (2550 mbsl). Both U and Mo show strong authigenic enrichment, coupled to progressive increase in δ98Moauth (+1.2–1.8‰ to +2.0–2.3‰) and decrease in δ238Uauth (+0.10‰ to −0.15‰) from the beginning to the end of S5, suggesting increasing water column euxinia and removal fluxes of Mo and U. Based on modern euxinic basins, we show that sedimentary Uauth can be used to derive estimates of water column U depletion and, ultimately, deep-water renewal rates. These principles are first tested on the modern Black Sea, which yields calculated deep-water renewal times of 830+690/−500 yrs, in good agreement with independent estimates. Applying these principles to the end of S5 suggests bottom-water U depletion of ∼50% and deep-water renewal times of 1030+820/−520 yrs. The significantly slower deep-water renewal rates in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea compared to today (∼100 yrs) would have played an important role in the formation of sapropel S5 and are consistent with the proposed suppression of overturning during the last interglacial, due to increased stratification resulting from higher riverine freshwater input under enhanced monsoon forcing.

The European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) are co-operating to develop the EarthCARE satellite mission with the fundamental objective of improving the understanding of the processes involving clouds, aerosols and radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere. A Cloud Profiling Radar (CPR), an Atmospheric LIDAR (ATLID), a Broadband Radiometer (BBR) and a Multi- Spectral Imager (MSI) constitute the payload complement of the EarthCARE satellite. The four instruments will provide synergistic data on cloud and aerosol vertical structure, horizontal cloud structure and radiant flux from sub-satellite cells. By acquiring images of the clouds and aerosol distribution, the MSI instrument will provide important contextual information in support of the radar and LIDAR data processing. The MSI instrument itself consists of two camera units, the Thermal Infrared (TIR) camera and the Visible, Near- Infrared and Shortwave Infrared (VNS) camera, that are readout through a shared Front-End-Electronics (FEE) unit, all controlled by the Instrument Control unit (ICU). The subject of this paper is the characterisation and performance verification results of the TNO designed and built Proto Flight Model (PFM) VNS camera in conjunction with the SSTL designed and built PFM FEE unit. This paper presents an overview of the characterisation and performance verification philosophy, followed by a more detailed presentation of several important measurements sets highlighted below. Optical quality measurements (Modulation Transfer Function) In order to measure the MTF of the VNS camera for several spatial frequencies simultaneously, a dedicated laboratory setup was built that provided the camera with block illumination patterns. Using Fourier analysis these optical block functions could be separated into their higher order components, resulting in acquisition of the MTF performance for several spatial frequencies concurrently. Spectral Response measurements For the VNS camera the spectral response was measured from 300nm up to 2400nm over the entire instrument swath of 360pixels. In order to perform this in an efficient manner a lock-in amplification setup was devised that included a “high” power pulsed tunable laser source, integrating spheres and monitoring detector. In order to control pulse to pulse variations of the laser source and have a correct background correction, the 1kHz pulse frequency of the laser was further modulated by a several Hz chopper, resulting in spectral measurements with ~1% accuracy. Straylight measurements The straylight requirements for the VNS camera were specified as the maximum allowable amount of signal in an infinite dark area when illuminating the VNS camera with semi- infinite light source in an adjacent area. A dedicated tool was developed to simulate these (semi) infinite areas. Radiometric characterization For the VNS camera the required absolute radiometric accuracy was quite relaxed, 10% (5% goal). However, the interchannel radiometric accuracy between the VNS channels is required to be better than 1%. This last requirement could not be achieved by “standard” radiometric calibration methods and a calibration method was developed using the VNS camera itself in collaboration with an integrating sphere that was used in radiance and irradiance modes.After finalisation of the performance testing and calibration measurements the VNS camera was delivered to SSTL mid 2017 for further integration on the MSI Optical Bench Module and alignment with the TIR camera and other MSI subsystems by SSTL.

The policy environment for the Irish agri-food sector could change rapidly in the coming decade. A potentially positive factor will be the elimination of milk quotas in 2015, although a potentially negative factor will be further trade liberalisation and increased import competition. These changes come on top of the move to decouple direct aids to farmers in 2005 as part of the Mid-Term Review of the EU's Common Agricultural Policy agreed in 2003. This paper examines these reforms and their impacts on the Irish economy and income distribution using a CGE model particularly rich in detail on the agri-food sectors, differentiated household groups, and agricultural policy instruments including their links to productive factors and households. The results suggest that the past and projected changes in the policy environment have, in sum, a small positive impact on GDP and household income. However, the gains and losses are unequally distributed across sectors and household groups due to the highly differentiated distribution of support and protection. Although all households generally gain from the sequence of policy reforms in the long run, some experience strong adverse effects from particular reforms and in the medium term.

Chemical Geology, 475, ISSN:0009-2541, ISSN:1872-6836

There is growing evidence that speleothem calcite grows out of isotopic equilibrium with cave drip water, with clumped isotope analysis providing a sensitive indicator for disequilibrium. This disequilibrium is primarily the result of CO2 degassing from a thin film of water, leading to irreversible 13C enrichment and reversible 18O enrichment and Δ47 depletion. Here we examine isotopic disequilibrium in Soreq Cave (Israel) using multiple modern-day and late Holocene speleothems. The variability observed in Δ47 is small, within the analytical uncertainty, but the Δ47-derived temperature is offset from the modern cave temperature by ∼4 °C, reflecting degassing related disequilibrium that is fairly constant spatially. δ18O is more heterogeneous, reflecting short-term variability in drip water δ18Ow combined with variability in the speleothem growth rates and related fractionation between dissolved carbonate species and the growing calcite mineral. This complexity, however, is markedly reduced by spatial or temporal averaging, enabling an interpretation of the cave paleoclimate record. We examine the Soreq Cave speleothems through a comparison with 2 types of thermometers: one is based on CaCO3 precipitation from a bulk solution and is typically used for calibration of the Δ47 and δ18O thermometers; a second that is based on CaCO3 precipitating at the surface of the solution thus focusing and amplifying the thin film characteristics of speleothem formation. Soreq Cave speleothems are intermediate between these thermometers, providing a cave-specific thermometer calibration.

Redox exerts a critical control on organic carbon-rich sedimentation. This is particularly true for Eastern Mediterranean sapropels where seawater stratification is regarded as a major driving force for oxygen depletion, but in which sulphidic (euxinic) bottom waters occur only sporadically. Here we apply a powerful array of geochemical proxies (Fe and Mo stable isotopes together with Mo/U ratios and redox sensitive trace elements (RSTE)) to the determination of water redox evolution during the deposition of Holocene S1 sapropel and its underlying and overlying sediments (ODP core 967D; 2550 m depth). RSTE are asymmetrically distributed within the sapropel, with peak enrichments occurring in its lower (early) part. Negative correlations are found between δFe57 and both Fe/Al and S wt% in the lower sapropel, and are consistent with the benthic Fe shuttle model Fe enrichment in euxinic basins. MoEF/UEF enrichment factor variations show well defined trends identical to those proposed for open marine settings, in which sub-oxic conditions in the background sediments give way to sulphidic waters at the RSTE peak in the lower sapropel. The most notable features of the Mo isotope profile are ‘atypically’ light values (δMo98/95

The WTO Doha Round of trade negotiations was launched in 2001 and after twelve years of negotiations members seem unable to bring it to a successful conclusion. The agreement on an "early harvest" of deliverables at the 9th WTO Ministerial Conference in Bali in December 2013 may give some renewed momentum, but the prospects for success appear uncertain. This paper describes the stage that the negotiations have reached in agriculture and summarises the most recent draft modalities for agricultural trade liberalisation. It surveys recent estimates of the value of what is currently on the table. It discusses the reasons for the current impasse in the negotiations and asks whether agricultural trade liberalisation would be better served by abandoning the Doha Round. The paper argues that this would not be the case, and concludes by speculating on the minimum conditions necessary to ensure a conclusion to the Round. EconLit Classification: F130, Q170 Sommario l negoziato commerciale del Doha Round del WTO e stato lanciato nel 2001, ma gli sforzi di dodici anni non sono bastati per raggiungere una conclusione positiva. L’accordo "raccolta precoce" di prodotti consegnabili della 9° Conferenza Ministeriale di Bali della WTO, svolta in dicembre 2013, puo dare un rinnovato impulso, tuttavia le possibilita di successo paiono incerte. Questo saggio fa il punto sulle trattative svolte finora, offrendo una sintesi delle ultime modalita proposte per la liberalizzazione del commercio agricolo. Sono esaminati i motivi dell’attuale impasse delle trattative fino a chiedersi se, per arrivare prima alla liberalizzazione del commercio agricolo, non sia meglio abbandonare il Doha Round. Tuttavia, questa ipotesi viene respinta, e in conclusione, l’attenzione vien posta sulle condizioni minime necessarie per arrivare alla conclusione del Round

article High-resolution isotopic and geochemical analyses in a modern (1990-2008) Soreq Cave stalagmite are com- pared to instrumental records of rainfall and dripwater from the cave, with the aim of determining how seasonal-resolutionclimateinformationistransmittedtospeleothemgeochemistry.Insitu,micron-scaleanalysis of oxygen isotope ratios (δ 18 O) and trace elements by ion microprobe in combination with a continuous, linear traverse of trace element concentrations by laser-ablation ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS) allow the definition of geochem- ical pathways within the cave. Fluorescent banding, imaged by confocal laser fluorescent microscopy (CLFM), as well as δ

This paper makes the case that an open and predictable trading system plays an essential role in promoting global food security by making the international food system more efficient and more responsive to sudden shocks which might threaten food security. It argues that the draft Doha Round agricultural modalities would do much to improve the governance of global food security and examines those areas where agreement remains elusive. It calls for more engagement by economists with an increasingly sceptical civil society to help build momentum for a successful conclusion to the Doha Round.

This paper reviews the debate on the proposal to introduce a green payment in Pillar 1 of the CAP since the publication of the Commission’s legislative proposals for the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy post-2013 in October 2011 to June 2012. Both arms of the legislative authority have begun to formulate their positions in response to stakeholder reactions. Many relevant details of how the proposals will be implemented remain unclear, but an attempt is made to examine their potential contribution to environmental improvement. Increasing the ambition of agri-environment measures in rural development programmes in Pillar 2, combined with strengthened cross-compliance standards, could offer more effective environmental protection at a lower cost in terms of foregone food production. The legislative process to date indicates that the final outcome will be based on the Commission’s original ideas but there is still scope to improve the environmental impact of CAP spending in the next MFF period.

This study focuses on warm Last Glacial episodes in the southernmost extension of the Alpine karst range of the Eastern Mediterranean (Levant) region through the study speleothems in Mizpe Shelagim Cave, located in Mt. Hermon. The Alpine karst range extends from Turkey through Syria and Lebanon, reaching its southern limit in Mt. Hermon at an elevation of more than 2000 m. Under present-day conditions, southern Mt. Hermon receives 1000–2000 mm precipitation, mostly as snow, that originates in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Speleothems deposition in this high altitude region was continuous during interglacials, but during the Last Glacial growth only occurred when average annual temperatures exceeded ∼3 °C as inferred from the study of speleothem fluid inclusions. Warming episodes occurred at: ∼65 ka, ∼56 ka, 54.5 ka, ∼52.5–51 ka, ∼49 ka, ∼42 ka, and ∼36 ka and are coincident with maximum insolation at 65 °N. The main depositional period from ∼56 ka to 51 ka coincides with Dansgaard–Oeschger interstadial 15 and 14, and warming in the northeastern basin of the Mediterranean Sea. Warming in the southern Alpine karst range of the Eastern Mediterranean was manifested by vegetation development, together with significant snow melting that resulted in the drainage of large amount of water to the Dead Sea Rift Valley.

Africa” exodus of early modern humans: evidence from desert stalactites A.VAKS , M. BAR-MATTHEWS, A. AYALON, A. MATTHEWS, L. HALICZ, AND A. FRUMKIN 1 Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904; Israel; antonv@pob.huji.ac.il; alan@vms.huji.ac.il 2 Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St., Jerusalem 95501; Israel matthews@gsi.gov.il; ayalon@gsi.gov.il 3 Department of Physical Geography, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91905; Israel; msamos@mscc.huji.ac.il

The Middle-Late Pliocene climate was 2-3°C warmer than today, but with similar levels of atmospheric CO2. This period reflects climate conditions expected in the near future, and is therefore an important target for current data-modeling studies. This study reconstructs the Pliocene-Quaternary evolution of arid conditions on the northern margin of the Saharan-Arabian desert, using radiometrically (U-Pb) dated periods of speleothem deposition from three caves of the Negev Desert, Israel. Speleothem growth started between ~3.75 and ~3Ma, at the end of the first significant tectonic uplift of the western shoulder of the Dead Sea Rift. Major speleothem deposition, indicating wet conditions, occurred during the Pliocene around ~3.1Ma, with subsequent aridity during the last 3Myr, punctuated by short wet episodes - the Pleistocene Negev Humid Periods (NHP). The oldest dated NHP occurred between ~1.7 and ~1.25Ma, and other short humid episodes continued intermittently later. Speleothem δ18O values (-6.9‰ to -11.2‰) show that the humid episodes were associated with periods of low global ice volume and warm temperatures. After correction for rainfall δ18O changes associated with ice volume and temperature effects, the observed relative constancy of speleothem δ18O values from Pliocene to Late Pleistocene indicates rainfall was from a common source, most probably the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The humid Pliocene conditions could be generated by more southerly position of the Mediterranean coast (allowing the access of Mediterranean precipitation to the Negev), as well as by warmer Atlantic Sea Surface Temperatures, that weakened the Azores High Pressure Cell. Maximum amounts of precipitation were 500-600mm/a during the Pliocene and >300mm/a during Pleistocene NHP. The Pliocene and the earliest Pleistocene NHP are associated with formation of lakes in the Negev. Low 87Sr/86Sr ratios of ~0.7078 in the Pliocene speleothems are indicative of low dust supply, low water residence time in the vadose zone and relatively high weathering rates of the cave host rock. Increase of 87Sr/86Sr ratios to 0.7082-0.7083 in the Pleistocene suggest an increased supply of desert dust, high water residence time in the vadose zone and reduced host rock weathering. © 2013 Elsevier B.V.

Chemical Geology, 445, ISSN:0009-2541, ISSN:1872-6836