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Mushrooms possess wide array of biologically active secondary metabolites and have been traditionally used for their medicinal properties. Exopolysaccharide (EPS) is one of such bioactive metabolites. The bioactive attributes and emulsification capabilities of the exopolysaccharides produced by a novel brown-rot fungus Fomitopsis meliae AGDP-2 under submerged fermentation has been thoroughly investigated in the present study. Exopolysaccharide displayed anti-oxidant activities in dose dependent manner with the maximum scavenging of ABTS radicals (42.45%), DPPH radicals (75.34%), Hydroxyl radicals (63.64%), Superoxide anion radical (76.54%) and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power with IC

Vermicomposting is an ecofriendly technology to convert organic waste into organic fertilizer. An epigenic species Eisenia fetida was used for the biotransformation of the banana pseudostem scutchers and cow dung into the vermicompost. Three different combinations of the banana pseudostem scutcher and cow dung were evaluated in the vermicomposting process. The change in the physicochemical parameters were examined by the standard method at the end of the vermicomposting. The results showed that earthworms increased the EC and NPK content while total carbon, pH and C:N ratio was reduced significantly in vermicompost of banana pseudostem scutchers. The maximum significant change in NPK content and reduction of total carbon and C:N ratio was found in the mixture of (75% banana pseudostem scutcher + 25% cow dung). The highest growth and reproduction rate was also present in the T2 treatment. The seed germination test was performed to evaluate the maturity of the vermicompost. The prepared vermicompost shows the significant effect on the growth of the Vigna radiata. The germination of the Vigna radiata is comparatively higher in vermicompost of the T2 treatment. It is evident from the results that the banana pseudostem scutcher and cow dung are good substrates for the vermicomposting and Eisenia fetida able to convert this organic waste into the stable nutrient rich product. This nutrient rich vermicompost has no phytotoxicity and the ratio of carbon/nitrogen below 15 which indicates the acceptable maturity and it can be utilize as organic fertilizer.

In the present study

Nitriles are organic compounds consisting of −C≡N group. They are frequently known to occur in nature and as intermediate by-products and waste products of various chemical, pharmaceutical, and agricultural industries. They are also found in fruit pits, cabbage, cauliflower, and sprouts, which are released upon hydrolysis. Nitrile converting enzymes like nitrilases have been extracted from microorganisms and plants. Nitrilase-mediated biocatalysis reactions have continuously aroused widespread interest to scientists and entrepreneurs in organic synthesis. Nitrile converting biocatalysts (Nitrilases) are now of substantial industrial interest from the perspective of treating toxic nitrile and cyanide-containing compounds. Nitrile degrading enzymes generally consist of nitrilases and amidases. The aim of the current review is to summarize the recent advancements on regioselective nitrilases concerning their fundamental researches and their application in the synthesis of series of high-value fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals. The present review also focuses on the utility of nitrile converting enzyme, sources, properties, classification, structure, and applications as well.

The extraction of natural dye using an aqueous method is a concept of green chemistry to avoid environmental pollution and toxicity. The present study was performed to improve the color strength an...

Banana pseudostem, a cellulose-rich by-product, is regarded as an important agricultural waste during the process of banana production. Microcrystalline cellulose was successfully prepared from banana pseudostem using acid hydrolysis method. Microcrystalline cellulose was characterized through various techniques such as XRD, TGA, SEM, FTIR and antioxidant activity to explore the possible applications in the pharmaceutical industries especially as a drug delivery vehicle. The investigation revealed that the derived microcrystalline cellulose is non-aggregated, short rods with high crystallinity index 67% and stable up to 347 °C. FTIR spectroscopy showed that hydrolysis treatments are efficient for the removal of lignin and hemicellulose content. Microcrystalline cellulose exhibited good antioxidant activity 90.29% at 100 μg/ml. In vitro studies for the drug release were carried out in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) using Isoniazid drug. The study proves that microcrystalline cellulose can be directly obtained from banana pseudostem which is not only beneficial to reduce the cost of traditional microcrystalline cellulose but is also conducive to the value-added utilization of the pseudostem.

Evaluating the biomass degradation using fast, validate and sensitive techniques for exploratory purposes of biofuel production has been developed since last decade. Thus, we assessed the degradation of two Indian hardwoods using FTIR and chemometric approaches. Two white rot fungi, namely Pseudolagarobasidium acaciicola AGST3 and Tricholoma giganteum AGDR1, were selected among twenty-one fungal isolates for higher hardwood degradation. In the screening, P. acaciicola AGST3 and T. giganteum AGDR1 depicted the dry woody mass loss of 20.51% and 22.38%, respectively. Cellulose crystallinity of P. acaciicola AGST3 treated hardwoods was 4-fold lower than untreated hardwoods, showing the higher cellulose degradation efficiency. P. acaciicola AGST3 treated samples exhibited maximum deviation of guaiacyl units of lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses. T. giganteum AGDR1 treated hardwoods showed maximum deviation of guaiacyl- and syringyl- units of lignin and hemicelluloses. Multivariate approach revealed the degradation patterns and preferences are varied based on the fungi and hardwood. The approach used in the present study can certainly distinguish the variations among the different biomass samples that having similar composition. Additionally, higher lignin degradability of these fungi can be used in biomass pretreatment, which significantly utilized to produce second-generation biofuels.

Immobilization of enzyme with nanostructures enhances its ideal characteristics, which may allow the enzyme to become more stable and resistant. The present investigation deals with the formulation of laccase nanosilica conjugates to overcome the problems associated with its stability and reusability. Synthesized nanosilica and laccase nanoparticles were spherical shaped, with the mean size of 220 and 615 nm, respectively. Laccase nanoparticles had an optimum temperature of 55 °C and pH 4.0 for the oxidation of ABTS. Laccase nanoparticle retained 79% of residual activity till 20th cycle. It also showed 91% of its initial activity at lower temperatures even after 60 days. Laccase nanoparticles were applied for Reactive Violet 1 degradation wherein 96.76% of decolourization was obtained at pH 5.0 and 30 °C within 12 h. Toxicity studies on microbes and plants suggested that the degraded metabolites were less toxic than control dye. Thus, the method applied for immobilization increased storage stability and reusability of laccase, and therefore, it can be utilized for efficient degradation of azo dyes. Graphical Abstract

The present work investigated the degradation of two Indian hardwoods ( Pithecellobium dulce and Tamarindus indica ) and the activities of lignocellulolytic enzymes by Pseudolagarobasidium acaciicola AGST3 and Tricholoma giganteum AGDR1. Laccase exhibited the highest ligninolytic activity, followed by manganese peroxidase and lignin peroxidase in both white rot fungi. Accessory enzymes such as aryl alcohol oxidase and cellobiose dehydrogenase showed higher activities till 21 days after incubation and then declined till 30 days. Xylanase and β-glucosidase were also found to be stable in both fungi during the degradation of hardwoods. The cultures, P. acaciicola AGST3 and T. giganteum AGDR1 accumulated high amounts of oxalic acid and produced weddellite (0.2–9 μm) and whewellite (5–21 μm) crystals, respectively. Comparative decay studies revealed that both the fungi were able to degrade lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses of two hardwoods efficiently. During the pyrolysis reaction, decrease in onset temperature and activation energy was observed with the fungal treated wood as compared to the untreated wood. The basidiomycete cultures used in the study are efficient lignin degraders and can be applied as a pretreatment for second generation biofuels.

Hydrocarbon pollution is a perennial problem not only in India but throughout the globe. A plethora of microorganisms have been reported to be efficient degraders of these recalcitrant pollutants. One of the major concerns of environmental problem is the presence of hydrocarbons due to the various anthropogenic activities. PAHs are ubiquitous in naturei.e.present in soil, water and air. Presence of PAHs in environment creates problem as their presence have deleterious effect on human and animals. They also have the ability to cause the tumors in human and animals. Some of the microorganisms are capable of transforming and degrading these PAHs and remove them from the environment. The present review describes about the sources, structure, fate and toxicity of PAHs as well as different bioremediation techniques involved in the removing of contaminants from the environment which are efficient and cost-effective. The conventional approaches used for removal of PAH are not only environment friendly but also are able to reduce the risk to human and ecosystem.

Laccase from previously reported hardwood degrading fungus, Tricholoma giganteum AGDR1, was isolated, identified at molecular level, biochemically characterized and also utilized for pesticide degradation. Laccase gene is comprised of 3752 bp, which encompassed 742-bp of 5′ flanking upstream sequence with 12 introns and 12 exons. Mature enzyme possesses 391 amino acids and signal peptide, which is determined to be monomeric protein with an apparent molecular weight of 41 kDa and 6.45 pI. Higher optimal activities were observed at 45 °C and pH 3.0 and surprisingly, it exhibited more than 20% of relative activity at pH 1.5. Purified laccase was tolerant to 100 mM of metals (i.e. Se, Pb, Cu, Cr and Cd), organic solvents (ethyl acetate, methanol, ethanol and acetone) and potent inhibitors (hydroxylamine, thiourea, NaF and Na-azide) as compared to reported laccases. It was able to degrade 29%, 7% and 72% of chlorpyrifos, profenofos and thiophanate methyl within 15 h, respectively. Molecular docking analysis revealed that higher binding efficacy of these pesticides is observed with H83, H320, A95, V384, and P366 which are presented near to the catalytic site. Based on the results, T. giganteum AGDR1 laccase can be applied for the potential remediation and industrial applications under harsh conditions.

Forty-seven (47) mutant strains were generated from the wild-type fungus, Fusarium incarnatum strain LD-3 after exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV) and a further seventeen (17) mutants were generated after exposure to ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS). Amongst these, the mutant strain, identified as UC-14, was the most promising laccase producer and produced threefold more laccase than the wild strain LD-3. Solid substrate tray fermentation using wheat straw and rice bran showed a twofold increase in laccase productivity and a fivefold loss of total organic matter (TOM) by mutant UC-14 over the wild strain LD-3. The mutant strain UC-14 also showed 25% and 54% weight loss of TOM after 36 days of fermentation which was 10% higher than the wild-type LD-3. Scanning electron microscopy suggested that the delayed condidiation in mutant strain UC-14 may be responsible for better laccase production.

Carbon nanotubes (CNT), which are unique tubular nanostructures, are one of the potential carbon nanomaterials that have been extensively utilized in agriculture, biofuel, chemical, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, electronics, pulping, and enzyme industries. It is due to their architecture; the carbon network of the shells is closely related to the honeycomb arrangement of the carbon atoms in the graphite sheets. It leads to the efficient mechanical and electronic properties of CNT structure. Based on the structure, CNTs are divided into two major parts: single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). In agriculture, there has been great interest in the use of CNTs. However, the literature discloses the mixed effects of CNT exposure on plants, increasing crop yield on one hand, while causing acute cytotoxicity in plants, on the other hand. This chapter evaluates the effect of CNTs on plants as well as on plant-associated microbes. Thus, the efforts need to be focused on better understanding of the underlying mechanism of CNT-plant interactions.

Mycoremediation is a technique wherein various fungi are used in the remediation of hazardous contaminants like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dyes, hazardous phenolics, heavy metals, and several others. Fungi are the ubiquitous and diverse group of organisms that produce a wide array of enzymes and metabolites (organic acids, exopolysaccharides, etc.). By synergic action of these metabolites, fungi can efficiently degrade or transform the hazardous contaminants. Additionally, live or dead fungal biomass has the higher sorption capability of contaminants as compared to the other microorganisms. In this chapter, application of fungi in degrading dyes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, remediation of heavy metals, and other contaminants is discussed, wherein fungi degrade the organics and aid in remediation of metals using a variety of strategies.

The search for cost-effective and environmental benign practices for the production of bioactive compounds has gained considerable attention since last decade, due to increasing demand of eco-friendly processes. Many industries have started adopting routes for the development of green chemistry by employing enzymatic approaches to overcome the limitations of physico-chemical methods and environmental concerns. Laccase is one such enzyme which has gained considerable attention in recent years as a biocatalyst in organic synthesis. Laccases possess versatile biochemical properties and the reactions catalyzed by laccase require only molecular oxygen with concomitant release of water as a byproduct. They have been widely used for reactions such as dimerization, polymerization, coupling, and grafting reactions and for antibiotic modifications. This chapter summarizes the advances that have been made in developing technologies based on laccase mediated reactions in the field of medicine, agriculture, food, and pharmaceuticals.

Efficient degradation of hazardous contaminants from contaminated water is the major challenge for researchers, wherein heavy metals are the prominent contaminants. Consequently, the assessment of multimetal removal is necessary using efficient biosorbant. In this work, the capability of Phanerochaete chrysosporium is evaluated for the individual and simultaneous removal of heavy metals. Individual and simultaneous removal of As, Cd, and Cr is optimized using response surface methodology based on the central composite design by changing the variables, i.e., pH, fungal biomass, and metal concentration. Optimization of the individual metal removal study reveals that fungus effectively absorbs As (29.95 mg L−1), Cd (18.1 mg L−1), and Cr (26.34 mg L−1) at 6.1, 5.64, and 4.15 of pH, respectively. Similarly, As (14.18 mg L−1), Cd (4.53 mg L−1), and Cr (9.28 mg L−1) are absorbed by fungal hyphae simultaneously within 1 h. Changes in the morphology of fungal hyphae are detected in metal absorbed samples as compared to the control hyphae. Interaction of metal‐absorbed fungal hyphae is analyzed using FTIR spectroscopy, revealing that the proteins, carbohydrates, and fatty acids present in the fungal cell are interacted with metals. The model white rot fungi used in the present study can be applied efficiently for the multimetal removal in effluent treatment plants.

Forty-seven (47) mutant strains were generated from the wild-type fungus, Fusarium incarnatum strain LD-3 after exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV) and a further seventeen (17) mutants were generated after exposure to ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS). Amongst these, the mutant strain, identified as UC-14, was the most promising laccase producer and produced threefold more laccase than the wild strain LD-3. Solid substrate tray fermentation using wheat straw and rice bran showed a twofold increase in laccase productivity and a fivefold loss of total organic matter (TOM) by mutant UC-14 over the wild strain LD-3. The mutant strain UC-14 also showed 25% and 54% weight loss of TOM after 36 days of fermentation which was 10% higher than the wild-type LD-3. Scanning electron microscopy suggested that the delayed condidiation in mutant strain UC-14 may be responsible for better laccase production.

India is amongst the largest banana (Musa acuminata) producing countries and thus banana pseudo stem is commonly available agricultural waste to be used as lignocellulosic substrate. Present study focuses on exploitation of banana pseudo stem as a source for bioethanol production from the sugars released due to different chemical and biological pretreatments. Two fungal strains Aspergillus ellipticus and Aspergillus fumigatus reported to be producing cellulolytic enzymes on sugarcane bagasse were used under co-culture fermentation on banana pseudo stem to degrade holocellulose and facilitate maximum release of reducing sugars. The hydrolysate obtained after alkali and microbial treatments was fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCIM 3570 to produce ethanol. Fermentation of cellulosic hydrolysate (4.1 g%) gave maximum ethanol (17.1 g/L) with yield (84%) and productivity (0.024 g%/h) after 72 h. Some critical aspects of fungal pretreatment for saccharification of cellulosic substrate using A. ellipticus and A. fumigatus for ethanol production by S. cerevisiae NCIM 3570 have been explored in this study. It was observed that pretreated banana pseudo stem can be economically utilized as a cheaper substrate for ethanol production.

In the present study, three different types of hydrogels i.e., (poly (-acrylamide)/alginate (P (AAm)/Alg), poly (acrylamide-N-isopropylacrylamide) (P (AAm-NIPA)), and poly (acrylamide-N-isopropylacrylamide)/alginate (P (AAm-NIPA)/Alg)) were synthesized by acrylamide, alginate, and N-isopropylacrylamide for the entrapment of laccase. The hydrogel-entrapped and free laccase showed optimum temperature of 50 °C for the oxidation of ABTS, but the entrapped laccase showed high temperature, pH, and storage stability as compared to the free enzyme. The K m values of free laccase, (P (AAm)/Alg)-L, (P (AAm-NIPA))-L, and (P (AAm-NIPA)/Alg)-L were found to be 0.13, 0.28, 0.33, and 0.50 mM, respectively. The V max values of free laccase, (P (AAm)/Alg)-L, (P (AAm-NIPA))-L, and (P (AAm-NIPA)/Alg)-L were found to be 22.22 × 10(2), 5.55 × 10(2), 5.0 × 10(2), and 4.54 × 10(2) mM/min, respectively. The entrapped laccase hydrogels were used for the decolorization of Reactive Violet 1 dye, with 39 to 45 % decolorization efficiency till the 10th cycle.

A novel white rot fungus Pseudolagarobasidium acaciicola AGST3 was investigated for the production of laccase under solid state fermentation. The effects of fourteen medium components were screened by the initial screening method of Plackett-Burman. Each of the components was screened on the basis of a ‘p’ (probability value) that was above 95 % confidence level. Tween 80, CuSO4·5H2O, glucose and FeC6H5O7·NH4OH were identified as significant components for laccase production. Central composite design using response surface methodology with four significant variables was used in this study to optimize significant correlations between the effects of these variables on laccase production. The optimum concentrations of Tween 80, glucose, FeC6H5O7·NH4OH and CuSO4·5H2O were (g/l): 0.6625, 0.437, 0.037 and 0.6625, respectively, for maximum laccase production. Compared to the unoptimized medium, the laccase production (5.35 × 105 U/g of substrate) increased 1.6-fold under optimized condition. Furthermore, the crude laccase obtained was used for the decolorization of structurally different dyes, and 11–96 % of decolorization was obtained after 24 h of incubation.

Azo dyes containing effluent from various textile industries adversely affects water resources, soil fertility, aquatic organisms as well as animals. Pure cultures of bacteria or bacterial consortia have been successfully applied for the biodegradation of toxic dye effluents. In this view, toxicity analysis of Red BS and Methyl Red dyes and their biologically decolorized solutions were studied on earthworm (Pheretima phosthuma), plants, and micro-organisms. Different types of morphological symptoms were observed upon exposure of dye solutions on earthworm. Mortality rate in terms of LD50 value was determined for both the dye solutions. The LD50 of untreated Red BS and Methyl Red dye solution was 120.22 and 218.77 mg l−l, respectively. Alteration in the protein content was observed in various organs, head, clitella, and abdomen of earthworms on exposure of dye solutions and the presence of proteins under stress condition was studied using Sodium dodecyl sulphate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis....

Lignocelluloses from agricultural, industrial, and forest residues constitute a majority of the total biomass present in the world. Environmental concerns of disposal, costly pretreatment options prior to disposal, and increased need to save valuable resources have led to the development of value-added alternate technologies such as bioethanol production from lignocellulosic wastes. In the present study, biologically pretreated (with the fungus, Pleurotus ostreatus HP-1) and chemically pretreated (with mild acid or dilute alkali) wheat straw (WS) and banana stem (BS) were subsequently subjected to enzymatic saccharification (with mixture of 6.0 U/g of filter paper cellulase and 17 U/g of β-glucosidase) and were evaluated for bioethanol production using Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCIM 3570. Biological and chemical pretreatments removed up to 4.0–49.2 % lignin from the WS and BS which was comparatively higher than that for cellulose (0.3–12.4 %) and for hemicellulose (0.7–21.8 %) removal with an average 5.6–49.5 % dry matter loss. Enzymatic hydrolysis yielded 64–306.6 mg/g (1.5–15 g/L) reducing sugars from which 0.15–0.54 g/g ethanol was produced from Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCIM 3570.

The present study deals with the decolorization of di-azo dye Acid Maroon V by consortium EDPA comprised of two isolates obtained from a contaminated site. The two isolates Enterobacter dissolvens AGYP1 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa AGYP2 were identified based on 16S rDNA sequencing. 93% decolorization of dye (100 mg l −1 ) was observed in Mineral Salt Medium in 20 h under static incubation condition. The consortium retained a decolorization activity over a wide range of pH values (6.0–9.0) with peak activity at pH 7.0. Additionally, consortium decolorized relatively high concentrations of Acid Maroon V (100–2000 mg l −1 ). The addition of sucrose co-substrate plus ammonium dihydrogen phosphate increased decolorization rate. The degradation of the dye was confirmed using spectrophotometric analysis, HPTLC and FTIR. The consortium was also able to reduce COD by 31% within 20 h. Acid Maroon V metabolites produced by consortium EDPA were considerably less phytotoxic than the parent compound. The consortium had the ability to decolorize 16 other textile dyes. These results suggest that the consortium EDPA is suitable for biological processing of dye containing wastewaters.

The strain Ganoderma cupreum AG-1 (Genbank accession no. HQ328947) isolated from the decayed wood was evaluated for its ability to decolorize azo dye reactive violet 1 as well as for the production of ligninolytic enzymes. In the initial decolorization study, the strain was capable of decolorizing 19 different azo dyes. The strain was capable of decolorizing dye over a pH range of 4.5–6 at 30 °C. The optimum pH was found to be 4.5. Various other process parameters like additional carbon and nitrogen source and initial dye concentration were also optimized. The decolorization medium was supplemented with appropriate nitrogen source (yeast extract, 5 g l−1) and carbon source (mannose, 2 g l−1); the decolorization obtained was 98 %. The pattern of enzymes involved in the biodegradation was studied and laccase and MnP were found to be the major enzymes. High laccase activity shown by G. cupreum AG-1 and its ability to decolorize dyes are a good indication of its possible use in the treatment of textile effluents.

The litter-dwelling fungus Fusarium incarnatum LD-3 has been identified as a novel producer of laccase. The present work was oriented towards the optimization of various cultivation conditions for maximizing laccase production under solid substrate fermentation. The process parameters were optimized by the “one factor at a time” approach. Maximum laccsase production was obtained at pH 5.0 and at a temperature of 28 °C with 60 % moisture content using rice bran as a substrate. The laccase production was enhanced in the presence of aromatic inducer, i.e. ortho-dianisidine at a concentration of 0.5 mM. Laccase production was further increased by 52.56 % when the medium was supplemented with 2 % (v/v) alcohol. Among the various amino acids tested as a growth factor and nitrogen source, D-Serine and DL-2 Amino n-butyric acid, DL-Alanine and L-Glycine were found to be the most suitable for laccase production. The highest laccase production (1,352.64 U/g) was achieved under optimized conditions, and was 2.1-fold higher than the unoptimized conditions. Thus, the novel litter-dwelling fungal isolate Fusarium incarnatum LD-3 seems to be an efficient producer of laccase and can be further exploited for biotechnological applications. This is the first report on the optimization of cultivation conditions and inducers for laccase production from Fusarium incarnatum LD-3.

Efficient degradation of hazardous contaminants from contaminated water is the major challenge for researchers, wherein heavy metals are the prominent contaminants. Consequently, the assessment of multimetal removal is necessary using efficient biosorbant. In this work, the capability of Phanerochaete chrysosporium is evaluated for the individual and simultaneous removal of heavy metals. Individual and simultaneous removal of As, Cd, and Cr is optimized using response surface methodology based on the central composite design by changing the variables, i.e., pH, fungal biomass, and metal concentration. Optimization of the individual metal removal study reveals that fungus effectively absorbs As (29.95 mg L-1), Cd (18.1 mg L-1), and Cr (26.34 mg L-1) at 6.1, 5.64, and 4.15 of pH, respectively. Similarly, As (14.18 mg L-1), Cd (4.53 mg L-1), and Cr (9.28 mg L-1) are absorbed by fungal hyphae simultaneously within 1 h. Changes in the morphology of fungal hyphae are detected in metal absorbed samples as compared to the control hyphae. Interaction of metal-absorbed fungal hyphae is analyzed using FTIR spectroscopy, revealing that the proteins, carbohydrates, and fatty acids present in the fungal cell are interacted with metals. The model white rot fungi used in the present study can be applied efficiently for the multimetal removal in effluent treatment plants.

In order to improve the digestibility and nutrient availability in rumen, wheat straw was subjected to solid state fermentation (SSF) with white-rot fungi (i.e. Pleurotus ostreatus and Trametes versicolor) and the fermented biomass (called myco-straw) was evaluated for biochemical, enzymatic and nutritional parameters. The fungal treatment after 30 days led to significant decrease (P < 0.05) in cell wall constituents viz, acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), hemicellulose, lignin and cellulose to the extent of 35.00, 38.88, 45.00, 37.48 and 37.86%, respectively in P. ostreatus fermented straw, while 30.04, 33.85, 39.90, 31.29 and 34.00%, respectively in T. versicolor fermented straw. However, maximum efficiency of fermentation in terms of low carbohydrate consumption per unit of lignin degradation, favoring cattle feed production was observed for P. ostreatus on the 10th day (17.12%) as compared with T. versicolor on the 30th day (16.91%). The myco-straw was found to contain significantly high (P < 0.05) crude protein (CP; 4.77% T. versicolor, 5.08% P. ostreatus) as compared to control straw (3.37%). Metabolizable energy (ME, MJ/kg DM), percent organic matter digestibility (OMD) and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs; mmol) production also increased considerably from control straw (4.40, 29.91 and 0.292) to a maximum up to P. ostreatus fermented straw (4.92, 33.39 and 0.376 on 20th day) and T. versicolor fermented straw (4.66, 31.74 and 0.334 on 10th day), respectively. Moreover, the myco-straw had lower organic carbon and was rich in nitrogen with lower C/N ratio as compared to control wheat straw. Results suggest that the fungal fermentation of wheat straw effectively improved CP content, OM digestibility, SCFAs production, ME value and simultaneously lowered the C/N ratio, thus showing potential for bioconversion of lignin rich wheat straw into high energy cattle feed.

The biodegradation of fluoranthene, a high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), was investigated in submerged culture using the wood decaying fungus isolated from forest locality in Gujarat, India. The basidiomycete fungal isolate was found to have an ability to grow on sabaroud dextrose agar containing 50 mgl(-1) of each naphthalene, anthracene, acenaphthene, benzo (a) anthracene, pyrene, flouranthene, carbazole, and biphenyl. The involvement of extracellular fungal peroxidases such as manganese peroxidase (MnP) and laccase (Phenol oxidase) in the degradation of fluoranthene was studied. On the eighth day of incubation 54.09% of 70 mg l(-1) fluoranthene was removed. There after no PAHs removal was observed till the 20th day of the incubation period. The isolate was identified as Pleurotus ostreatus by 18S rRNA, 5.8S rRNA, and partial 28S rRNA gene sequencing. To the best of our knowledge this is the first time Pleurotus ostreatus have been reported to degrade such a high concentration of fluoranthene within much lower time period of incubation. Depletion in the residual fluoranthene in the culture medium was determined by HPLC. Attempts were made to identify the degradation product in the culture medium with the help of FT-IR, NMR, and HPTLC analysis. In the present study positive correlation between fluoranthene degradation and the ligninolytic enzyme (MnP and laccase) production is observed, thus this isolate can play an effective role for bioremediation of PAHs contaminated sites.

The decolorization of Acid Maroon V was investigated using bacterial consortium EDPA containing Enterobacter dissolvens AGYP1 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa AGYP2 immobilized in different entrapment matrices. The consortium displayed 96% removal of dye (100 mg/l) within 6 h when immobilized in agar-agar. Under optimum concentrations of agar-agar (3.0% w/v) and cell biomass (0.9 g% w/v), the consortium displayed decolorization for 18 successive batches of Acid Maroon V and also decolorized 14 other different textile dyes. A packed bed reactor under batch mode showed 89% decolorization of dye after 56 repetitive cycles. Under continuous flow mode, maximum color removal was achieved with bed length of 36 cm, hydraulic retention time of 2.66 h, and dye concentration of 100 mg/l. Additionally, the reactor decolorized relatively higher concentrations (100-2000 mg/l) of dye. The synthetic dye wastewater containing five textile dyes was decolorized 92% with 62% COD reduction using an immobilized consortium.

Lignocellulosic wastes available in abundance can be excellent substrates for the production of cellulase and β-glucosidase enzymes by solid state fermentation (SSF). A cellulase system, showing enhanced hydrolytic potential and β-glucosidase under SSF, was obtained by cocultivation of Aspergillus ellipticus and Aspergillus fumigatus. Different types of substrates and various pretreatments were used to improve hydrolytic process. Among the various substrates examined, sugarcane bagasse gave the highest activity and 2% calcium hydroxide treatment was found to be the most favorable treatment for the enzyme production. The maximum enzyme production was obtained on the eighth day of the fermentation process.

Production of cellulolytic enzymes on bagasse under solid state fermentation by coculture ofAspergillus ellipticus andAspergillus fumigatus was studied. Cocultivation ofA. ellipticus andA. fumigatus showed improved hydrolytic and Β-glucosidase activities as compared to the occasions when they were used separately. Various pretreatment methods were used to make cellulose accessible to enzymatic attack. Best results were obtained through pretreatment with 2% (w/v) calcium hydroxide. Maximum enzyme production was obtained after 8 d of fermentation process.

Bisphenol A [2,2 bis (4 hydroxyphenyl) propane] is widely used in the variety of industrial and residential applications such as the synthesis of polymers including polycarbonates, epoxy resins, phenol resins, polyesters and polyacrylates. BPA has been recognized as an Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDC), thus it is necessary to assess its biodegradability or fate in the natural environment. In general, environmental pollutant such as BPA does not dissolve in aqueous media, owing to their high hydrophobicity, and hence non-aqueous catalysis can be employed to enhance biodegradability of phenolic environmental pollutant. Purified laccase hosted in reverse micelles using ternary system of isooctane: AOT [Bis (2-ethylhexyl) sulphosuccinate sodium salt)]:water having hydration ratio (Wo) of 30 with protein concentration of 43.5 μg/ml was found to eliminate 91.43% of 200 ppm of Bisphenol A at 50 °C, pH-6.0 when incubated with laccase/Reverse Micelles system for 75 min. GC-MS analysis of isooctane soluble fractions detected the presence of 4,4'-(2 hydroxy propane 1,2 diyl) diphenol, bis (4-hydroxylphenyl) butenal and 2-(1-(4-hydroxyphenyl) vinyl) pent-2-enal indicated degradation of BPA by two oxidation steps and one ring opening step (C-C bond cleavage). Laccase/RM system exhibited several advantages for the oxidative degradation of hydrophobic phenols mainly because of the solubility of either enzyme or substrate was improved in organic media and the stable activity of laccase in organic media was achieved.

Laccases (Benzenediol: oxygen oxidoreductase, E.C. 1.10.3.2) are enzymes belonging to the group of polyphenol oxidases which are monomeric, dimeric or tetrameric glycoproteins with copper atoms per monomer located at the catalytic site. It is widely distributed in wood rotting fungi and which is also found in a variety of molds, insects as well as some plants and bacteria. Laccases have received much attention from researchers in the last decades due to their ability to oxidize both phenolic and non phenolic lignin related compounds as well as highly recalcitrant environmental pollutants, which makes them very useful for their application to several biotechnological processes. As on oxidase, laccase is used in many agricultural, industrial and medicinal applications. Thus, laccases are increasingly finding applications in biotechnology in the fields of environment-friendly synthesis of fine chemicals and for the gentle derviatization of biologically active compounds e.g. antibiotics, amino acids, antioxidants and cytostatics. Oligomerization and polymerization reactions can lead to new homo- or heteropolymers and biomaterials. These may be useful in wide range of applications including the production of polymers with antioxidative properties, the co-polymerizing of lignin components with low molecular mass compounds, the coating of cellulosic cotton fibers or wool, ingredients of cosmetics. Laccase nano particles have also been used for the elimination of micropollutants from waste water in bioreactors.

Mannich bases obtained from Biginelli-derived DHPMs (I) are assayed for their in vitro antimicrobial activity against E.

Laccase production by solid state fermentation (SSF) using an indigenously isolated litter dwelling fungus Fusarium incarnatum LD-3 was optimized. Fourteen medium components were screened by the initial screening method of Plackett-Burman. Each of the components was screened on the basis of 'p' (probability value) which was above 95% confidence level. Ortho-dianisidine, thiamine HCl and CuSO(4) . 5 H(2)O were identified as significant components for laccase production. The Central Composite Design response surface methodology was then applied to further optimize the laccase production. The optimal concentration of these three medium components for higher laccase production were (g/l): CuSO(4) . 5 H(2)O, 0.01; thiamine HCl, 0.0136 and ortho-dianisidine, 0.388 mM served as an inducer. Wheat straw, 5.0 g was used as a solid substrate. Using this statistical optimization method the laccase production was found to increase from 40 U/g to 650 U/g of wheat straw, which was sixteen times higher than non optimized medium. This is the first report on statistical optimization of laccase production from Fusarium incarnatum LD-3.