27 results on '"Akselsen, Per Espen"'
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2. A Multifaceted Intervention and Its Effects on Antibiotic Usage in Norwegian Nursing Homes
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Harbin, Nicolay Jonassen, primary, Haug, Jon Birger, additional, Lindbæk, Morten, additional, Akselsen, Per Espen, additional, and Romøren, Maria, additional
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- 2023
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3. Gentamicin bør fortsatt inngå i empirisk sepsisregime hos voksne.
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Grønmo, Maria Mellemstrand, Møller-Stray, Janne, Akselsen, Per Espen, Lindemann, Paul Christoffer, Fostervold, Aasmund, Knudsen, Caroline Vestby, Knudsen, Per Kristian, Lindbæk, Morten, Tonby, Kristian, and Sundsfjord, Arnfinn
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- 2024
4. Reply to Sambhara
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Bredholt, Geir, Berdholt, Geir, Pedersen, Gabriel Kristian, Pathirana, Rishi Delan, Akselsen, Per Espen, and Cox, Rebecca Jane
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- 2013
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5. A(H1N1)pdm09 Vaccination of Health Care Workers: Improved Immune Responses in Low Responders Following Revaccination
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Pathirana, Rishi Delan, Bredholt, Geir, Akselsen, Per Espen, Pedersen, Gabriel Kristian, and Cox, Rebecca Jane
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- 2012
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6. A rapid antibody screening haemagglutination test for predicting immunity to SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern
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Ertesvåg, Nina Urke, Xiao, Julie, Zhou, Fan, Ljostveit, Sonja, Sandnes, Helene, Lartey, Sarah, Sævik, Marianne, Hansen, Lena, Madsen, Anders, Mohn, Kristin G. I., Fjelltveit, Elisabeth, Olofsson, Jan Stefan, Tan, Tiong Kit, Rijal, Pramila, Schimanski, Lisa, Øyen, Siri, Brokstad, Karl Albert, Dunachie, Susanna, Jämsén, Anni, James, William S., Harding, Adam C., Harvala, Heli, Nguyen, Dung, Roberts, David, Patel, Monika, Gopal, Robin, Zambon, Maria, Wei, Leiyan, Gilbert-Jaramillo, Javier, Knight, Michael L., Vaughan-Jackson, Alun, Dupont, Maeva, Lamikanra, Abigail A., Klennerman, Paul, Barnes, Eleanor, Deeks, Alexandra, Johnson, Sile, Skelly, Donal, Stafford, Lizzie, Townsend, Alain, Tøndel, Camilla, Kuwelker, Kanika, Blomberg, Bjørn, Bredholt, Geir, Onyango, Therese Bredholt, Vahokoski, Juha, Bansal, Amit, Trieu, Mai Chi, Amdam, Håkon, Akselsen, Per Espen, Skorge, Trude Duelien, Okkenhaug, Liv Heiberg, Linchausen, Dagrunn Waag, Langeland, Nina, and Cox, Rebecca Jane
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Background Evaluation of susceptibility to emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC) requires rapid screening tests for neutralising antibodies which provide protection. Methods Firstly, we developed a receptor-binding domain-specific haemagglutination test (HAT) to Wuhan and VOC (alpha, beta, gamma and delta) and compared to pseudotype, microneutralisation and virus neutralisation assays in 835 convalescent sera. Secondly, we investigated the antibody response using the HAT after two doses of mRNA (BNT162b2) vaccination. Sera were collected at baseline, three weeks after the first and second vaccinations from older (80–99 years, n = 89) and younger adults (23–77 years, n = 310) and compared to convalescent sera from naturally infected individuals (1–89 years, n = 307). Results Here we show that HAT antibodies highly correlated with neutralising antibodies (R = 0.72–0.88) in convalescent sera. Home-dwelling older individuals have significantly lower antibodies to the Wuhan strain after one and two doses of BNT162b2 vaccine than younger adult vaccinees and naturally infected individuals. Moverover, a second vaccine dose boosts and broadens the antibody repertoire to VOC in naïve, not previously infected older and younger adults. Most (72–76%) older adults respond after two vaccinations to alpha and delta, but only 58–62% to beta and gamma, compared to 96–97% of younger vaccinees and 68–76% of infected individuals. Previously infected older individuals have, similarly to younger adults, high antibody titres after one vaccination. Conclusions Overall, HAT provides a surrogate marker for neutralising antibodies, which can be used as a simple inexpensive, rapid test. HAT can be rapidly adaptable to emerging VOC for large-scale evaluation of potentially decreasing vaccine effectiveness.
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- 2022
7. NORM/NORM-VET 2021: Usage of Antimicrobial Agents and Occurrence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Norway
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Akselsen, Per Espen, Andersen, Cecilie Torp, Caugant, Dominique Andree Yvette, Dansie, Live Storehagen, Elstrøm, Petter, Simonsen, Gunnar Skov, Blix, Hege Salvesen, Grave, Kari, and Urdahl, Anne Margrete
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Dyr ,Bacterial Zoonoses ,Norway ,Legemiddelresistens ,Drug Resistance, Bacterial ,Drug Resistance ,Humans ,Animals ,Legemiddelresistens, bakteriell ,Norge ,Mennesker - Abstract
Norsk overvåkingssystem for antibiotikaresistens hos mikrober (NORM) og Norsk overvåkingsprogram for antibiotikaresistens i mikrober fra fôr, dyr og næringsmidler (NORM-VET) utgir en felles årlig rapport. Årets rapport presenterer data om forekomst av antibiotikaresistens og forbruk av antibiotika til mennesker og dyr i 2021. Data fra relevante prosjekter som ikke er med i de kontinuerlige overvåkingsprogrammene, presenteres også. NORM og NORM-VET ble etablert som deler av Regjeringens tiltaksplan mot antibiotikaresistens offentliggjort i 2000. NORM koordineres av Avdeling for mikrobiologi og smittevern, Universitetssykehuset Nord-Norge i Tromsø. NORM-VET koordineres av Veterinærinstituttet. Forbruk av antibiotika til dyr I 2021 utgjorde salget av antibakterielle veterinærpreparater til landdyr totalt 4 875 kg, som er på samme nivå som i 2020. Salget av antibakterielle veterinærpreparater til matproduserende landdyr, inkludert hest, var på 4 500 kg. Data rapportert til Veterinært legemiddelregister (VetReg) viser at til storfe, gris, sau, geit og fjørfe ble det i all hovedsak brukt penicilliner og av disse var det nesten utelukkende beta-laktamase ømfintlige penicilliner (benzylpenicillinprokain) som ble benyttet. Fra 2013 til 2021 var det en nedgang i salget av antibakterielle veterinærpreparater som i hovedsak benyttes til de viktigste matproduserende artene (storfe, gris, sau, geit og fjørfe) på 25 % målt i kg aktivt stoff. Når salget relateres til dyrepopulasjonen, var nedgangen i forbruket 21 %. Til hest ble det i hovedsak brukt trimetoprim-sulfa som oralpasta. Salget av antibakterielle veterinærpreparater til flokkbehandling er fortsatt lavt; i 2021 representerte salg av slike preparater 2,6 % av totalsalget til matproduserende landdyr, inkludert hest. Forbruket av veterinære antibakterielle midler til oppdrettsfisk (forbruk til rensefisk inkludert) var fortsatt svært lavt i 2021 og utgjorde 953 kg. Dette representerer en nedgang på over 99 % sammenlignet med 1987 da forbruket var på sitt høyeste. I 2021 ble det foretatt behandling med antibiotika i 2,2 % av sjølokalitetene for laks og regnbueørret. Til kjæledyr (hund og katt) ble det i 2021 solgt 375 kg veterinære antibakterielle midler. Dette er en nedgang på 29 % sammenlignet med 2013. Data rapportert til VetReg for perioden 2015-2021 viser en reduksjon på totalt 11 % i forskrivningen av antibakterielle humanpreparater til hund og katt, noe som indikerer at redusert salg av veterinære antibakterielle midler ikke har blitt erstattet av forskrivning av antibakterielle humanpreparater. Det Europeiske legemiddelbyrået (EMA) har anbefalt å begrense bruken av enkelte antibakterielle midler til dyr, dvs. 3.-4. generasjons cefalosporiner, kinoloner (fluorokinoloner og andre kinoloner) og polymyksiner, på grunn av den potensielle risikoen for folkehelsa. Av disse antibakterielle midlene selges det kun kinoloner til matproduserende landdyr og oppdrettsfisk. Salget av kinoloner utgjør en svært liten andel (1,2 %) av totalsalget av veterinære antibakterielle midler til disse kategoriene, og hovedparten brukes til oppdrettsfisk. Narasin ble faset ut som fôrtilsetningsmiddel til slaktekylling sommeren 2016. Bruken av antibiotika til behandling har vært svært lav i etterkant av utfasingen, og i 2021 ble det ikke foretatt noen behandling med antibiotika i slaktekylling-flokker. Forbruk av antibiotika hos mennesker I 2021 var det totale salget av antibakterielle midler til systemisk bruk hos mennesker (J01 ekskl. metamin) 11,2 definerte døgndoser (DDD)/1000 innbyggere/døgn. Siden 2012 har det vært en markant nedgang i total antibiotikabruk, i alt en reduksjon på 33 %. Under Covid-19 pandemien har det vært en signifikant reduksjon i bruken av systemiske antibiotika, hovedsakelig grunnet mindre forskrivning av antibiotika mot luftveisinfeksjoner i primærhelsetjenesten. Infeksjonskontrolltiltak kan ha redusert forekomsten av infeksjoner, i tillegg til at befolkningen kan ha hatt høyere terskel for å gå til lege med symptomer på luftveisinfeksjon. Rundt 85 % av totalt antall DDD av antibakterielle midler brukes i primærhelsetjenesten, dvs. utenfor helseinstitusjoner. I 2021 var penicilliner (J01C) oftest forskrevet i primærhelsetjenesten; 38 % av all DDD og 54 % av reseptene i ATC-gruppe J01, ekskl. metenamin, etterfulgt av tetracykliner, J01A (19 %). De tre hyppigst foreskrevne antibiotika i 2021 var fenoksymetylpenicillin, pivmecillinam og dicloxacillin. Disse tre utgjorde 52 % av alle resepter og 47 % av all antibiotika målt i DDD. I Norge er smalspektret penicillin førstevalg ved luftveisinfeksjoner, og i 2021 utgjorde andelen smalspektrede penicilliner (J01CE) 25 % av det totale salget (J01, ekskl. metenamin). Metenamin benyttes forebyggende mot urinveisinfeksjoner og utgjorde 29 % av alle DDD i J01 antibakterielle midler til systemisk bruk. Den jevne nedgangen i antibiotikabruk i primærhelsetjenesten de siste årene kan skyldes økt oppmerksomhet om antimikrobiell resistens, både blant helsepersonell og i befolkningen generelt. Etter innføringen av regjeringens handlingsplan mot AMR i 2016 har en stor andel allmennleger gjennomført kvalitetsforbedrende kurs om riktig antibiotikaforskrivning. Selv om mye er oppnådd, er det sannsynligvis fremdeles forbedringsområder, f.eks. i individualisering av doser eller varighet av kur og valg av antibiotika. Man kan derfor forvente at det er mulig å oppnå en ytterligere reduksjon i antibiotikaforbruket og en enda mer smalspektret terapiprofil. Antibiotikasalg (i DDD) til sykehus utgjorde 8 % av totalt salg av antibakterielle midler til mennesker i 2021. Det har vært en nedgang på 14 % i DDD/1000 innbygger/døgn sammenlignet med 2012 og nedgang på 11 % sammenliknet med 2019 (dvs. før pandemien). Sykehusene omstrukturerte avdelingene sine og utsatte planlagt kirurgi som forberedelse til det forventede høye antallet inneliggende pasienter med alvorlig Covid-19 sykdom. Dette resulterte i færre innleggelser og færre liggedøgn, ettersom de fleste sykehus faktisk viste seg å ha overskuddskapasitet. I norske sykehus ble det gjennomsnittlig brukt 73 DDD/100 liggedøgn i 2021. Dette er en nedgang siden 2020, og en økning på 8 % siden 2012. Antall SAMMENDRAG NORM / NORM-VET 202 DDD/sykehusinnleggelse (i 2021; 2,9 DDD/ innleggelse) ble redusert med 5 % i samme periode. Terapimønsteret for antibakterielle midler på sykehus endrer seg ikke mye fra det ene året til det andre, men det er en klar trend mot mer bruk av antibiotika som er anbefalt i retningslinjene. Bruken av bredspektrede antibiotika er redusert siden 2012. De utgjorde 21 % av bruken målt i DDD/100 liggedøgn i 2021 og 26 % i 2012. I sykehus ble penicilliner (J01C) mest brukt (nesten halvparten av bruken målt i DDD), mens cefalosporiner er den nest største antibiotikagruppen med 19 % av all DDD. Det er store variasjoner mellom sykehus, både målt i volum (DDD/100 liggedøgn) av antibiotika som brukes og i terapiprofil. Variasjonene kan ikke forklares med forskjeller i aktivitet eller sammensetningen av pasientgrunnlaget alene. Resistens hos kliniske isolater fra dyr I 2021 ble det undersøkt Escherichia coli, Streptococcus dysgalactiae og Streptococcus uberis fra mastittinfeksjoner hos storfe. Totalt 83,9 % av 168 E. coli isolater var fullt følsomme overfor alle de antibiotika de ble testet for. Multiresistens (resistens mot tre eller flere antibakterielle klasser) ble påvist i 11,3 % av isolatene. Seks av disse var resistent mot hhv. fire og fem antibakterielle klasser. Resistens mot ekstendert-spektrum cefalosporiner (ESC) ble påvist i to av E. coli isolatene, hvorav det ble påvist blaOXA-1 i ett av isolatene og mutasjon i ampC genet i det andre. Av de 153 S. dysgalactiae isolatene var 92,8 % fullt følsomme overfor alle de antibiotika de ble testet for, og kun 0,7 % var multiresistente. Totalt 79,9 % av 174 S. uberis isolater var fullt følsomme, og 2,8 % var multiresistente. Resistens hos indikatorbakterier fra dyr og mat Resultatene fra 2021 bekrefter at situasjonen i Norge er god med tanke på antibiotikaresistens hos bakterier fra dyr og mat. Forekomsten av multiresistens (resistens mot tre eller flere antibakterielle klasser) og spesielle resistente bakterier/resistensmekanismer av særlig interesse, slik som Escherichia coli resistente mot ekstendert-spektrum cefalosporiner (ESC), er fremdeles lav. Karbapenemaseproduserende Enterobacterales (CPE) har ikke blitt påvist fra dyr eller mat i Norge. Dette gjelder også for 2021. NORM-VET følger de krav til overvåking av antibiotikaresistens i indikatorbakterier (og i zoonotiske bakterier) som er satt i EU-regelverket (2020/1729/EU). I tillegg undersøkes det prøver av dyr og matvarer ut fra nasjonale hensyn. E. coli og Enterococcus spp. benyttes som indikatorbakterier, dvs. at sensitivitetstesting av E. coli og Enterococcus spp. benyttes som indikator for forekomst av antibiotikaresistens. Selektive metoder brukes til overvåking av E. coli resistent mot ESC, CPE, kinolonresistente E. coli (QREC) og meticillinresistente Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). MRSA i svinepopulasjonen er overvåket via et eget omfattende program, som har som mål å identifisere MRSA-positive besetninger. Resultatene fra dette programmet oppsummeres også i denne rapporten. I 2021 ble det undersøkt blindtarmsprøver fra storfe under ett år og fra slaktegris, ett dyr per besetning. Fra disse ble det isolert og sensitivitetstestet E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis og E. faecium. Prøvene ble også undersøkt for forekomst av ESC-resistente E. coli og CPE. Svaberprøver fra hest var også inkludert for sensitivitetsundersøkelse av E. coli, samt for forekomst av ESC-resistente E. coli, QREC og CPE. Fra hest ble det også tatt nesesvabre som ble undersøkt for MRSA. Av matprøver ble det undersøkt for forekomst av ESC-resistente E. coli og CPE i storfekjøtt og svinekjøtt. Majoriteten av de 289 E. coli isolatene fra storfe var fullt følsomme for de antibakterielle midlene de ble testet for (95,2 %), og kun 0,7 % av isolatene var multiresistente. Andelen fullt følsomme E. coli isolater har vært relativt stabilt de siste årene (2015-2021). Kun tre E. faecalis og 27 E. faecium ble påvist fra storfe. Av disse var alle tre E. faecalis og 21 av de 27 E. faecium fullt følsomme, og ingen var multiresistente. Resultatene er i samsvar med resultatene fra 2019. Også i prøvene fra gris var majoriteten (85,9 %) av E. coli isolatene (n=320) fullt følsomme for de antibakterielle midlene de ble testet for. Totalt var 3,4 % av isolatene multiresistente. Andelen isolater som var fullt følsomme, har økt siden 2015, dog med en liten nedgang i 2021 sammenliknet med 2019. Disse endringene er forårsaket av endringer i følsomhet for sulfametoxazole, trimetoprim, ampicillin og tetrasyklin. Full følsomhet for de antibakterielle midlene de ble testet for, ble også påvist for seks av 20 E. faecalis isolater, samt for 63,1 % av E. faecium (n=103) fra gris. Multiresistens ble ikke påvist fra noen av disse enterokokkene. Resultatene er i samsvar med resultatene fra 2019. I prøver fra hest, var majoriteten (84,1 %) av E. coli isolatene (n=189) fullt følsomme for de antibakterielle midlene de ble testet for. Multiresistens ble påvist hos 1,1 % av isolatene. Dette er i samsvar med resultater fra 2017. ESC-resistente E. coli ble påvist i tre av prøvene fra storfe (1,0 %) og i 47 av prøvene fra gris (14,6 %). Alle de tre storfeisolatene og 44 av griseisolatene var ESC-resistente på grunn av mutasjoner i det kromosomale ampC genet. Blant de resterende griseisolatene, ble to genotypet som blaCTX-M-15 og en som blaCTX-M-55. ESC-resistente E. coli ble også funnet i en av de 312 prøvene av svinekjøtt (0,3 %), og genotypet som blaCMY-2. Ingen av de 313 undersøkte prøvene fra storfekjøtt var positive for ESC-resistente E. coli. Fra hest ble det ikke påvist verken ESC-resistente E. coli eller MRSA, og kun 1,1 % av prøvene var positive for QREC. Resistens hos zoonotiske bakterier og andre enteropatogene bakterier Zoonosebakterier isolert fra dyr og fra mat Den norske husdyrpopulasjonen er regnet som tilnærmet fri for Salmonella. I 2021 ble prøvene samlet inn etter kravene satt i EU-regelverket (2020/1729/EU), dvs. 301 prøver fra storfe og 324 prøver fra slaktegris, undersøkt uten funn av Salmonella. Totalt ble 25 Salmonella spp. isolater fra dyr sensitivitetsundersøkt (ett isolat fra hhv. fjørfe, hest, gris og sau, to fra storfe, tre fra hund, fem fra katt og elleve fra villsvin). Disse isolatene kom fra det nasjonale Salmonella overvåkingsprogrammet, fra overvåkingsprogrammet på villsvin, og fra andre undersøkelser ved Veterinærinstituttet. Med unntak av ett isolat som var resistens mot kinoloner, var alle isolatene fullt følsomme for de antibakterielle midlene de ble testet for. I 2021 ble det også testet 15 Salmonella spp. isolater fra kjøtt som ikke var av norsk opprinnelse. Disse kom fra Nasjonalt referanse-laboratorium for Salmonella. Majoriteten av disse isolatene var fullt følsomme, og kun ett S. Typhimurium isolat var multiresistent. Campylobacter spp. isolert fra 307 storfe og 326 slaktegris var inkludert i 2021. Majoriteten av de 127 testede C. jejuni isolatene fra storfe (86,6 %) var fullt følsomme for de antibakterielle midlene de ble testet for, og ingen var multiresistente. Det ble ikke påvist C. coli fra storfe. Av de 17 påviste C. jejuni isolatene fra gris, var kun ett isolat resistent. Totalt 81,7 % av 290 C. coli isolater fra gris var fullt følsomme for de antibakterielle midlene de ble testet for, mens de resterende isolatene kun var resistente mot ciprofloksacin. Siden 2009 har det vært observert en økende trend i resistens mot ciprofloksacin hos C. coli fra gris. Kliniske isolater av tarmpatogene bakterier fra mennesker Referanselaboratorium for enteropatogene bakterier (NRL) utfører årlig antimikrobiell følsomhetstesting for Salmonella, Campylobacter, Yersinia og Shigella isolater. Fra og med 2020 har NRL screenet alle Enterobacterales isolater for antimikrobielle resistensdeterminanter etter helgenomsekvensering for å forutsi genotypisk resistens. I 2020 og 2021 ble reiserestriksjoner håndhevet som ett av smitteverntiltakene under Covid-19 pandemien, noe som reduserte antallet reiseassosierte infeksjoner vesentlig. Trender for antibiotikaresistens må tolkes deretter. For Salmonella Typhimurium og den monofasiske varianten av S. Typhimurium var det totale resistensnivået høyere for stammer fra reiseassosierte infeksjoner sammenlignet med innenlands ervervede stammer. Antibiotikaresistens var høyest blant Salmonella Typhi, med en økende trend for resistens mot utvidet spektrum cefalosporiner. Multiresistens (MDR) var også en karakteristisk egenskap for en betydelig andel av S. Typhi stammer (66,7 %). Tre Salmonella isolater var ESBL-produsenter, alle genotypet til blaCTX-M. For Campylobacter jejuni var det generelle resistensnivået for ciprofloksacin og tetracyklin høyere for stammer fra reiseassosierte infeksjoner sammenlignet med innenlands ervervede stammer. En økende trend av resistens mot ciprofloksacin og utvidet spektrum cefalosporiner ble observert hos Shigella sonnei. Åtte Shigella spp. ble bekreftet som ESBLA-produsenter kodet av CTX-M. Antibiotikaresistens i Yersinia enterocolitica er fortsatt lav. Resistens hos kliniske isolater fra mennesker Forekomsten av antibiotikaresistente kliniske bakterieisolater fra mennesker var fortsatt lav i 2021. Det ble påvist 12 tilfeller av meticillinresistente Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) blant 1 455 blodkulturisolater (0,8 %) som ble inkludert i NORM 2021. Resultatene samsvarer med tall fra laboratorienes datasystemer som rapporterte 20 MRSA isolater blant 2 047 S. aureus (1,0 %) fra blodkultur og spinalvæske i 2021. Dette er en reduksjon fra 1,8 % i 2020. Meldesystemet for infeksjonssykdommer (MSIS) registrerte 701 tilfeller av MRSA infeksjon i 2020 mot 945 i 2019 og 734 i 2020. De fleste tilfellene var fra pasienter med overfladiske sårinfeksjoner og abscesser. MRSA utgjør fortsatt en svært liten andel av S. aureus isolater fra sårprøver (13 av 879; 1,5 %) slik de har gjort i tidligere år (1,3 % i 2019; 1,8 % i 2020). MSIS registrerte også 1 050 tilfeller av MRSA kolonisering i 2021 mot 1 499 i 2019 og 1 148 i 2020. I alt ble det meldt funn av MRSA hos 1 751 personer i 2021. Dette utgjør en insidensrate på 32/100 000 personår mot 46/100 000 i 2019 og 35/100 000 i 2020. Det månedlige antall MRSA infeksjoner har ikke endret seg signifikant gjennom de siste åtte årene, og insidensen av invasive infeksjoner har holdt seg stabil på et lavt nivå. Det årlige antall koloniserte personer hadde en topp i 2017 og har blitt betydelig redusert de siste fire årene. En høy andel av tilfellene blir fortsatt smittet i utlandet, og den reduserte forekomsten i 2020 og 2021 kan delvis skyldes reduksjon av internasjonal reisevirksomhet. Det påvises svært få tilfeller av landbruksassosiert MRSA i Norge. Blodkulturisolater av E. coli viste stort sett uendret forekomst av resistens mot bredspektrede antibiotika i 2021. Andelen av gentamicinresistente isolater var 5,6% i 2021 sammenliknet med 5,9% i 2019 og 6,7 % i 2020, mens forekomsten av resistens mot ciprofloxacin var stabil med 10,4 % i 2021 mot 11,2 % i 2020. Klebsiella spp. har omtrent samme forekomst av resistens mot gentamicin (4,2 %) og ciprofloxacin (8,9 %) som E. coli. Produksjon av bredspektrede beta-laktamaser (ESBL) er blitt et utbredt problem i mange land, og forekomsten har også vært økende i Norge. Til sammen 128/2 212 (5,8 %) E. coli og 57/1 045 (5,5 %) Klebsiella spp. fra blodkultur ble rapportert som ESBL-positive i 2021. Forekomsten er svakt synkende for både E. coli (7,1 % i 2019; 6,5 % i 2020) og Klebsiella spp. (5,7 % i 2019; 7,2 % i 2020). Andelen av ESBL-positive isolater var fortsatt høyere blant E. coli fra blodkulturer (5,8 %) enn fra urinprøver (3,1 %). Kolonisering og/eller infeksjon med karbapenemaseproduserende Enterobacterales (CPE), Pseudomonas aeruginosa og Acinetobacter spp. har vært meldepliktige til MSIS siden juli 2012. Antallet pasienter meldt med CPE var uendret med 60 tilfeller i 2021 mot 57 i 2020. Antallet pasienter med karbapenemaseproduserende P. aeruginosa (n=1) var fortsatt lavt, mens antallet meldinger for Acinetobacter spp. gikk ned fra 10 i 2020 til 8 i 2021. En stor andel av påviste multiresistente Gram-negative bakterier kan knyttes til import fra land med høy forekomst av slike mikrober. Den mest sannsynlige forklaringen på den reduserte forekomsten i Norge er derfor reduksjonen av internasjonal reisevirksomhet som følge av koronaviruspandemien i 2020 og 2021. Overvåkingen av resistens hos systemiske isolater av Haemophilus influenzae og Neisseria meningitidis ble tatt opp igjen ved referanselaboratoriet på Folkehelseinstituttet (FHI) i 2020, men som for andre luftveispatogener ble det diagnostisert svært få tilfeller (henholdsvis n=63 og n=5). Neisseria gonorrhoeae (n=220) viste utbredt resistens mot penicillin G (15,0 %), og bare 12,3 % var følsomme for standard dosering svarende til villtypepopulasjonen. Hele 53,2 % var resistente mot ciprofloxacin. Alle isolater var følsomme for ceftriaxon, mens i alt tre isolater (1,4 %) var resistente mot det perorale cefalosporinet cefixim. Alle isolater var fullt følsomme for spectinomycin. Det ble kun påvist et enkelt enterokokkisolat fra blodkultur med klinisk signifikant vankomycinresistens i 2021 (vanB E. faecium). Forekomsten av resistens mot ampicillin i E. faecium ligger stabilt rundt 70-80 %. Høygradig gentamicinresistens ble redusert hos E. faecalis (8,5 % i 2021 mot 12,0 % i 2020), men økte til 46,2 % hos E. faecium (43,8 % i 2020). Den fallende tendensen for aminoglykosidresistens hos enterokokker gjennom det siste tiåret er dermed brutt. Nesten alle E. faecium med høygradig SAMMENDRAG NORM / NORM-VET 2021 gentamicinresistens var også resistente mot ampicillin. Det ble ikke funnet linezolidresistente enterokokker (LRE) i NORM-overvåkingen i 2021. Både VRE og LRE er meldepliktige til MSIS, og det ble bekreftet funn av 34 VRE (204 i 2019; 75 i 2020) og 16 LRE (16 i 2019; 10 i 2020) på referanselaboratoriet ved Nasjonal kompetansetjeneste for påvisning av antibiotikaresistens (K-res) på UNN i 2021. Forekomsten av VRE varierer med utbrudd fra år til år, men den nedadgående trenden i Norge skiller seg ut i europeisk sammenheng. Antallet påvisninger av LRE har vært langsomt økende, men ser nå ut til å ha stabilisert seg. Man kan spekulere på om den signifikante reduksjonen av antall VRE-tilfeller skyldes redusert reisevirksomhet og/ eller bedre smitteverntiltak i sykehusene under pandemien. Overvåkingen av resistens hos systemiske isolater av Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumokokker) og Streptococcus pyogenes (beta-hemolytiske streptokokker gruppe A) ble gjenopptatt ved referanselaboratoriet på FHI i 2020. Bare 0,6 % av pneumokokkisolatene fra blod og spinalvæske var resistente mot penicillin G, men i tillegg var 6,3 % kun følsomme for økt eksponering for dette middelet. Andelen kategorisert som I+R er blitt redusert fra 12,8 % i 2020 til 6,9 %, men dette kan delvis skyldes tekniske forhold knyttet til resistensbestemmelsen. Tre isolater (1,0 %) ble kategorisert som I for ett eller flere 3. generasjon cefalosporiner. Forekomsten av makrolidresistens var 6,0 % i 2021 sammenliknet med 8,4 % i 2020. Alle isolater av S. pyogenes fra blodkultur var følsomme for penicillin G. Forekomsten av erytromycinresistens (19,2 %) viser en dramatisk økning fra 6,7 % i 2020, men utviklingen må følges over tid før man kan trekke noen endelige konklusjoner om dette funnet. Systemiske isolater av Streptococcus agalactiae (beta-hemolytiske streptokokker gruppe B) var også følsomme for penicillin G, men hadde høy forekomst av resistens mot erytromycin (19,5 % i 2020; 22,7 % i 2021) og tetracyklin (75,2 % i 2020; 80,0 % i 2021). I alt 154 pasienter med tuberkulose ble meldt til MSIS i 2021, og resistensresultater er tilgjengelige for 124 av dem. Ti isolater (8,0 %) ble definert som multiresistente (MDR) mot både rifampicin og isoniazid sammenliknet med 0,8 % i 2020. Pasientene hadde ervervet sine infeksjoner i Afrika (n=4), Europa utenom Norge (n=3), Asia (n=2) og Norge (n=1). Det ble utført resistensbestemmelse av 212 Candida blodkulturisolater av 11 forskjellige species fra 193 ulike pasienter. De vanligste artene var C. albicans (n=126), C. glabrata (n=36), C. parapsilosis (n=14), C. tropicalis (n=13) og C. dubliniensis (n=11). Alle C. albicans var følsomme for de undersøkte midlene med unntak av et enkelt fluconazolresistent isolat. Det ble kun påvist enkelte non-albicans isolater med ervervet resistens mot flukonazol, men som forventet var det høy forekomst av resistens mot azoler hos C. glabrata (11,1 %). Nøyaktig species-bestemmelse er avgjørende for å forutsi iboende resistens og velge effektiv behandling. Resultatene samsvarer med tidligere studier fra Norge. Konklusjon I Norge er forekomsten av antibiotikaresistens fortsatt lav i bakterier fra mennesker og dyr. Dette skyldes lavt forbruk av antibiotika, et fordelaktig forbruksmønster, og effektive tiltak mot spredning av resistente bakterier. Resultatene som presenteres i rapporten, viser at strategiene mot antibiotikaresistens har vært vellykkede både i husdyrholdet og i helsevesenet. Det er imidlertid nødvendig med kontinuerlig innsats for å bevare den gunstige situasjonen slik at antibiotika også i fremtiden vil være effektive for de som trenger det. NORM/NORM-VET-rapporten er viktig for å dokumentere utviklingen av antibiotikaforbruk og resistens hos mennesker og dyr, og for å evaluere effekten av tiltak.
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- 2022
8. Anbefalingene for antibiotikabehandling av sepsis diskuteres, særlig bruken av aminoglykosider. Utkast til reviderte anbefalinger er lagt ut til åpen høring
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Wæhre, Torgun, Waagsbø, Bjørn, Jordal, Stina, Indrebø, Eirik Müller, Wang, Hege, and Akselsen, Per Espen
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Nasjonal faglig retningslinje for antibiotikabruk i sykehus er under oppdatering (1). Så langt er åtte reviderte terapikapitler publisert. Kapittelet med anbefalinger for antibiotikabehandling ved sepsis og mistenkt sepsis er nå sendt på høring, med høringsfrist 28. februar 2022 for innspill til Helsedirektoratet (2). Sepsis defineres etter sepsis-3-kriterier (3), som erstatter tidligere SIRS (Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome)-kriterier. I praksis vil mange pasienter ha «mistenkt sepsis», og disse pasientene er også inkludert i anbefalingene. Septisk sjokk er en undergruppe av sepsis karakterisert av hypotensjon til tross for væskebehandling, der man har behov for vasopressorbehandling. Anbefalingene vil ikke dekke alle kliniske sitasjoner, og i kompliserte tilfeller bør spesialist i infeksjonssykdommer kontaktes.
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- 2022
9. På høring: Antibiotikabehandling ved sepsis
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Wæhre, Torgun, primary, Waagsbø, Bjørn, primary, Jordal, Stina, primary, Indrebø, Eirik Müller, primary, Wang, Hege, primary, and Akselsen, Per Espen, primary
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- 2022
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10. Antibiotikabruk i sykehus ved covid-19
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Borén, Håkon Kinck, primary, Thaulow, Christian Magnus, primary, Quist-Paulsen, Else, primary, Wæhre, Torgun, primary, Akselsen, Per Espen, primary, and Tonby, Kristian, primary
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- 2020
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11. Valg av antibiotika – viktig endring i prøvesvar fra mikrobiologen
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Lindemann, Paul Christoffer, primary, Gammelsrud, Karianne Wiger, primary, Löhr, Iren Høyland, primary, Akselsen, Per Espen, primary, Lindbæk, Morten, primary, and Sundsfjord, Arnfinn, primary
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- 2019
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12. Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL1RA) in acute leukaemia: IL1RA is both secreted spontaneously by myelogenous leukaemia blasts and is a part of the acute phase reaction in patients with chemotherapy-induced le
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Bruserud, Øystein, Aasen, Ingrid, Akselsen, Per Espen, Bergheim, Jann, Rasmussen, Gro, and Nesthus, Ingrid
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- 1996
13. Re-vaccination with an adjuvanted pandemic influenza H1N1 vaccine provides early protection in healthcare workers
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Azzi, Alberta, Corcioli, Fabiana, Arvia, Rosaria, Clausi, Valeria, Giannecchini, Simone, Puzelli, Simona, Donatelli, Isabella, Bredholt, Geir, Pathirana, Rishi, Pedersen, Gabriel, Akselsen, Per Espen, Sjursen, Haakon, Cox, Rebecca, Chaudhry, Mamoona, Rashid, Hamad Bin, Hussain, Manzoor, Thrusfield, Michael, Rashid, Haroon, Welburn, Sue, Eisler, Mark, Cheng, Xiao-wen, Lu, Jian-hua, Zhang, Shun-xiang, He, Jian-fan, Wu, Xiao-min, Lu, Xing, Fang, Shi-song, Wu, Chun-li, Chui, Cecilia, Li, Chris, Wilkinson, Tom, Gilbert, Anthony, Zhou, Jian-Fang, Shu, Yue-Long, Oxford, John, McMichael, Andrew, Xu, Xiaoning, Germundsson, A, Gjerset, B, Hjulsager, C, Larsen, LE, Er, C, Hungnes, O, Lium, B, Mbewana, Sandiswa, Mortimer, Elizabeth, Maclean, James, Tanzer, Fiona, Hitzeroth, Inga, Rybicki, Edward, Iorio, Anna Maria, Bistoni, Onelia, Galdiero, Massimiliano, Lepri, Enrica, Camilloni, Barbara, Russano, Anna Maria, Neri, Mariella, Basileo, Michela, Spinozzi, Fabrizio, Wang, Xin, Wang, Dong-li, Fang, Shi-song., Zhang, Renli, Cheng, Jinquan, Lycett, SJ, Bhatt, S, Pybus, OG, Baillie, G, Coulter, E, Kellam, P, Wood, JL, Brown, IH, consortium, COSI, Brown, AJ, Nazir, Jawad, Haumacher, Renate, Abbas, Maha D, Marschang, Rachel E, Robertson, James, Stech, J, Stech, O, Veits, J, Weber, S, Bogs, J, Gohrbandt, S, Hundt, J, Breithaupt, A, Teifke, JC, Mettenleiter, TC, Svindland, Signe C, Jul-Larsen, Åsne, Andersen, Solveig, Madhun, Abdullah, Montomoli, Emanuele, Gill, Inder, Cox, Rebecca J, Uchida, Yuko, Watanabe, Chiaki, Takemae, Nobuhiro, Hayashi, Tsuyoshi, Ito, Toshihiro, and Saito, Takehiko
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Conference Proceedings - Abstract
21-23 September 2010, St Hilda's College, Oxford, United Kingdom, Since the first appearance of the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus many efforts have been made to monitor the changes of the virus at molecular level with the aim to early detect mutations which could alter its pathogenicity. Some mutations have been observed more frequently in viruses that caused severe or fatal infections than in viruses involved in mild infections. Among these, the most common seems to be the amino acid substitution D222G (or D222E or D222N) in the HA1 sequence. However, to better assess the association of such mutation with pandemic virus pathogenicity a large set of data is required, in addition to other experimental studies. In our laboratory, as regional reference laboratory in Tuscany, 2350 respiratory specimens have been analysed for pandemic virus detection from May 2009 to May 2010 and 552 out of them showed positive by a real time RT-PCR. Here we report the results of the sequencing of a small region of the HA1 gene, 180 nucleotide long, performed to detect the previously reported mutation in two small groups of our positive samples. Thirteen out of 18 isolates (72%) from patients with severe disease had the D222E mutation in the HA1 in comparison with 7 out of 26 isolates (27%) from patients with mild disease. In this last group 7 children coming back from a school trip in England were included. Five of them shed a virus with the D222E substitution, suggesting that the mutated virus had been transmitted from a shared source. By cloning the PCR products of some samples from severe case of influenza, the presence of “quasispecies” was observed. Altogether, the 20 isolates with the D222E mutation were obtained from July to November 2009. Our observation confirm that the mutation is more frequently detectable in association with severe forms of influenza and that the mutated virus was easy transmissible. Keywords: pandemic influenza 2009, pathogenicity marker, haemagglutinin, Healthcare workers were prioritized for pandemic vaccination in the majority of countries to maintain the integrity of the healthcare system. In October 2009, we conducted a clinical trial in 250 frontline healthcare workers vaccinated with a low dose split pandemic H1N1 virus (X179a A/California/7/2009) vaccine adjuvanted with AS03. Vaccination induced a protective level of haemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibodies by 6-7 days post-vaccination, however in 10% of volunteers vaccination failed to induce and maintain a protective HI antibody response at 3 months post-vaccination. These non-responders were offered re-vaccination with the X179a H1N1 vaccine and here we report the kinetics of serum B- and T-cellular response to re-vaccination. Twelve healthcare workers (8 females and 4 males, average age 40.3 ± 12.7 years) were re-vaccinated with one dose of AS03 adjuvanted pandemic vaccine (3.75 μg haemagglutinin). The serum antibody response to homologous vaccine strain (X179a) and cross-reactivity to 3 other H1N1 strains (A/Brisbane/59/2007, A/New Caledonia/20/99 and A/Texas/36/91) was evaluated by HI assay. The frequency of antigen-specific antibody secreting cells and memory B-cell responses were detected by ELISPOT assays. The percentage of antigen-specific CD4+ T-cells secreting one or more Th1 cytokine (TNF alpha, IFN gamma or IL-2) was analysed by intracellular staining and multiparametric flow cytometry. There was a significant (p, Avian influenza type A and Newcastle Disease viruses cause significant economic losses to commercial poultry in Pakistan and are endemic in this area. Rural poultry contributes 56% of total egg production and 25% of poultry meat in Pakistan. Almost all rural, and 20% of urban, households keep backyard flocks, which are affected by common circulating viruses of poultry. A serological survey was designed to determine the prevalence of these viruses among the backyard flocks in Lahore district during July-August 2009. Two-stage cluster sampling was undertaken. In the first stage, 35 out of a total of 308 villages in Lahore district were selected on the basis of probability proportional to size (PPS) as clusters. In the second stage, six chickens of >2 months were selected as elementary units. A total of 210 serum samples were collected and examined by the haemagglutination inhibition test for specific antibodies against avian influenza virus (AIV) subtype H9, AIV subtype H5 and ND viruses. The seroprevalence of AIV subtype H9 was 63.8% (95% CI: 55-72%), that of AIV subtype H5 was 18.1% (95% CI: 12-24%) and of Newcastle Disease virus 41.9% (95% CI: 33-50%). The study therefore confirmed the exposure of backyard flocks to these viruses and indicated that AIV subtypes H9 and H5 and Newcastle Disease virus are circulating in backyard poultry. AIV potentially poses a zoonotic risk to human beings, interacting daily with these birds. The spread of these viruses could be due to low biosecurity at farm level or due to mixing of wild and migratory birds with backyard poultry. To control the further spread of AIV and ND, improvement in biosecurity of backyard flocks and ongoing monitoring of their disease status is recommended. Keywords: Avian influenza type A, seroprevalence, Newcastle disease, haemagglutination Inhibition, backyard flock, AIV H5, AIV H9, cluster sampling, This study was conducted to understand the knowledge, attitudes and practices of human H5N1 avian influenza (AI) in the Shen Zhen general population. Using a cross-sectional, Proportional Probability Sampling (PPS), face-to-face survey, 2073 Chinese people in Shen Zhen were interviewed anonymously in August of 2007. 90.4% of respondents had heard of avian influenza. The knowledge, attitudes and practices of human H5N1 avian influenza were significantly different among sex, age, education and occupation. 40.5% of respondents who heard of avian influenza had gone to the living chicken market AOR=2.31 (1.61∼3.32), and do not touch the cage AOR=0.35 (0.12∼0.98). Related AI information primarily came from public newspaper and television. Thus, the AI risk perception is high level, but the level of self-efficacy is low in Shen Zhen. Attention to risk communication and how to increase the self-efficacy should be paid. Timely dissemination of update information is greatly warranted. Keywords: Human H5N1 avian Influenza, knowledge, attitudes, practices, Influenza virus causes morbidity and mortality worldwide. Neutralizing antibodies are the major correlates of protection against influenza infection and the magnitude of their induction is widely used to evaluate the effectiveness of an influenza vaccine. Despite substantial evidence in animal models which suggest critical roles of T cells in the viral clearance, the role of cellular immunity in humans remained poorly understood. This project aims to determine cellular immune responses in sero-negative human volunteers following nasal challenge with a live virus, and to identify the role of pre-existing T cell responses in the virus shedding and disease severity in the absence of antibody. I have found that pre-existing memory T cells persist in most individuals and predominantly are specific against internal proteins such as nucleoprotein and matrix proteins. The challenge studies identified over 50 peptides and revealed the T cell response to be predominantly CD4-dependent. Seven days after challenge infection, these influenza-specific CD4 cells have greatly expanded (about 10 times) in both breadth and magnitude, and were able to kill antigen-loaded autologous B cell lines in vitro by chromium release assay. These acutely expanded T cells were shown to be highly activated (CD38+) and proliferative (Ki-67+). In a separate pandemic H1N1 vaccine trial where 150 healthy volunteers were vaccinated with an inactivated unadjuvanted split virion pandemic H1N1 vaccine, a modest response of influenza-specific T cells could be induced. Responses to both surface (HA and NA) and internal proteins were induced, and specific response measured by HA and NA peptide pools were also found to be strongly CD4+ dependent. Sixteen peptides were identified in this vaccine cohort. Activated proliferating cells induced during vaccination are of a central memory phenotype. As immune memory forms the basis of protection through natural infection or vaccination, the project will carry on to dissect how these memory CD4+ T cells function and differentiate in an acute infection. Due to the cross-reactive nature of T cell recognition and high degree of homology of different influenza subtypes, it is intriguing to explore the heterotypic immunity of T cell responses in acute influenza infection. This work should provide an insight on how cellular immunity can be targeted in conferring broad protection against different subtypes of influenza A viruses. Keywords: human seasonal influenza, experimental infection, T cell immunity, influenza inactivated vaccine, pandemic H1N1, In March-April 2009, a novel pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus (pH1N1-09v) emerged in the human population. The first case of pH1N1v infection in pigs was reported from Canada in May 2009. In Norway, pH1N1v infection was recorded in a swine herd on the 10th of October of 2009. Here, we report results from the investigation performed during the outbreak and the follow up surveillance performed in the Norwegian pig population. Nasal swabs were collected from herds i) where pigs had been exposed to persons with verified pH1N1-09v infection or with influenza-like illness (ILI); ii) where pigs showed clinical signs or iii) with a history of close contact with or close proximity to infected herds. In addition, blood samples were collected from nucleus and multiplier breeding herds. Detection of pH1N1-09v was initially performed using a real-time RT-PCR targeted to detect influenza A virus. Positive samples were tested by a pH1N1-09v specific real-time RT-PCR. Blood samples were tested for presence of antibodies against influenza A virus by ELISA (IDVET) and positive samples in the ELISA were tested by haemagglutinin inhibition test using A/California/07/09 as antigen. From the onset of the outbreak and until 31st of December 2009, the pH1N1-09v was detected in nasal swabs from 54 of 114 herds investigated tested, while 55 of 140 herds tested positive for antibodies against pH1N1-09v. No herd has been tested positive for pH1N1-09v since early January 2010, however, results of the Norwegian surveillance and control programme for specific swine herds for 2010 so far indicates that 40 % of the swine herds (154 herds) are positive for antibodies against pH1N1-09. Serological evaluation of swine herds and detailed back tracking of the outbreak indicated that the virus was introduced in September 2009. The Norwegian swine population has, until the outbreak of pH1N1-09v, been considered free from influenza A virus infection as documented through serological surveillance program running since 1997. Virus isolated from one of the herds positive for pH1N1-09v was fully identical across the full genome to virus isolated from a confirmed human case at the farm. The majority of the positive herds had a history of contact with humans that were diagnosed with pandemic influenza or with ILI. This suggests that infected humans are the most likely source for introduction of pH1N1-09v to the Norwegian pig herds, especially in the early phase of the outbreak. Keywords: influenza A, pH1N1-09v, pigs, humans, Influenza A viruses are responsible for causing annual outbreaks in humans, and the latest pandemic H1N1 virus is an example of the potential for these viruses to recombine. The highly pathogenic avian influenza type H5N1 is the most virulent influenza virus, reported thus far. Currently Africa does not have the capacity to produce influenza vaccines, thus relies on the goodwill of the developed countries for vaccine stocks. Our aim is to develop a stable and cheap candidate vaccine against H5N1 for Africa by producing it in plants. Recombinant plant expression allows for the production of easy, rapid, inexpensive and infinitely scalable vaccines. We focused on producing two variants of the HA protein derived from the A/Viet/1194/ 2004 sequence: these were a full-length (H5) and truncated form (H5tr) with the membrane insertion domain removed. These variants were expressed in plants from genes that were optimised for human codon use. We also cloned the HA variant genes into a DNA vaccine vector. For plant expression, the HA genes (H5 and H5tr) were cloned into four binary plant expression vectors which target recombinant protein into the different subcellular compartments of the host plant cells. These are the cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the chloroplast and the apoplast. Gene expression was tested by stable transformation of Nicotiana tabacum and transient expression in N. benthamiana via Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated gene transfer. Western blots of plant extract indicated that both protein variants were successfully expressed in plants. These proteins were purified by diafiltration and His-tag purification via nickel-bound resin. HA protein was produced in plants in high amounts in the ER (H5tr) and apoplast (H5) compared to the other plant compartments. Haemagglutination (HA) and haemagglutination inhibition assays (HI) confirmed that the conformation of both proteins was correct. For the DNA vaccine, the H5 and H5tr genes were cloned into a mammalian expression vector pTH and both were successfully expressed in HEK293 cells as detected by western blotting. A mouse immunisation trial was conducted followed by immunological analysis. The presence of H5 specific antibodies was detected in the mouse sera by western blotting. To conclude, the HPAI H5N1 influenza HA variants (H5 and H5tr) were successfully produced in plants. Highest amounts of H5tr were produced in the ER while H5 was best expressed in the apoplast. Mice inoculated with the H5 and H5tr candidate DNA vaccines showed a positive antibody response to both vaccines. These results indicate that vaccines using HA-derived H5 and H5tr are immunologically effective and that production can be made cheaper as they are expressed successfully in plants. Keywords: Avian influenza H5N1, plant expression, DNA vaccine, Africa, The generally mild illness induced by the recent pH1N1 virus and the higher incidence of illness in people younger than 65 years suggested the possible influence of pre-existing cross-reactive immunity against the new virus in the oldest people and probably in people previously vaccinated with seasonal influenza vaccines [1,2]. This study evaluated humoral and ex vivo cellular immune responses in 12 healthy adult subjects vaccinated with the 2007/2008 MF59-adjuvanted trivalent (A/Wisconsin/67/05 (H3N2), A/Solomon Islands/3/06 (H1N1), B/Malaysia/2506/04) subunit vaccine (FLUAD, Novartis). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and serum samples, obtained before and respectively 7 and 30 days after vaccination, were frozen and successively used. Cellular responses were evaluated determining antigen-specific activation of T lymphocytes by FACS enumeration of CD69+ CD3+ or CD69+ CD8+ T lymphocytes and by measuring antigen-induced IFN-gamma release by ELISPOT. PBMCs were stimulated in vitro with the influenza vaccine antigens, the new pH1N1 virus and a haemagglutinin-(HA)-peptide317-341, corresponding to a highly conserved sequence of the HA stalk region containing the fusion peptide, a possible candidate for a universal influenza vaccine [3]. After vaccination there was an increase, in most instances significative, in the numbers of activated (CD69+) total T lymphocytes, as well as CD8+ cells and in T lymphocytes IFN-gamma production, following stimulation not only with vaccine antigens, but also with the new pH1N1 virus and with the HA-peptide317-341. Humoral responses were studied determining haemagglutination inhibiting (HI) antibody titres against the vaccine antigens and the new pH1N1 virus in 11 of the 12 volunteers. Nine (82%) volunteers seroconverted at least against one vaccine antigens, whereas only one against pH1N1. After vaccination the percentages of seroprotected (HI titre =40) people against the vaccine antigens ranged between 64 and 91%, whereas only one volunteer showed protection against pH1N1. Overall, these data raised the possibility that, although annual influenza vaccines are primarily aimed to stimulate the generation of anti-HA antibodies, which confer protection against homologous strains, they can induce also some level of cross-reactive immunity, especially cellular immunity. The finding, after 2007/2008 influenza vaccination, of induction of cellular cross-reactivity against pH1N1virus is consistent with epidemiological studies suggesting effectiveness against pandemic H1N1-associated illness deriving from seasonal vaccination [1,2] and the induction of reactivity against the highly conserved HA- peptide317-341 support the possibility of a universal influenza vaccine [3]. This research was supported by PRIN (2007CCW84J), Ministero Università Ricerca, Italy Keywords: Influenza vaccination, cellular and humoral immunity, cross-reactive responses, Since April 2009, the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 caused by a new strain of H1N1 influenza virus has spread all over the world. Massive vaccination is anticipated to have an important role for controlling the transmission. Shenzhen, located in southern China's Guangdong province, is situated immediately north of Hong Kong. Due to its geographical location and massive immigration, Shenzhen became one of the cities dispensing free H1N1 vaccines produced by a domestic company. In this study, we surveyed antibody response in serum samples obtained from children before and after the vaccination. A total of 286 children without history of a recent respiratory infection were given in a single shot in December 2009. Two serum samples were collected from every child, which were obtained at the time of the vaccination, and two weeks after the vaccination, respectively. Hemagglutination-inhibition (HI) tests were conducted to determine the antibody levels. The seropositive rate (SPR, the percentage with HI titer = 1:40 post-vaccination) to pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus and the geometric mean titer (GMT) were calculated. Meanwhile, paired-Samples T test was used to comparatively analyze antibody response before and after the vaccination. The mean ages of the children were 11.3±2.7 years. Among 286 individuals, 71 were seropositive with a cut-off antibody titer of 1:10, and 20 presented a protecting antibody titer of at least 1:40 before the vaccination. The results indicate that some people might have contracted the H1N1 2009 infection. The SPR of antibodies to pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus was 62.6%. There was significant difference in GMT antibodies to pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus between serums collected before and after the vaccination (19.4 vs. 62.4, P=0.00). In this survey, the antibody level in children to pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus rapidly rose after a single shot with the vaccine made in China. In addition to vaccination, some people were found to be seropositive after the first wave of the pandemic (H1N1) 2009. Along with the community transmission of H1N1 influenza virus and the campaign of vaccination, more and more people will present with protecting serum antibodies. Keywords: H1N1 vaccination, Antibodies, Shenzhen, The natural reservoir hosts for influenza viruses are thought to be wild waterfowl. Nevertheless transmissions to mammals occur and some lineages have become established in swine and humans. The aim of this work is to investigate mutations in influenza A viruses which are directly associated with adaptation to swine and humans, and distinguish them from mutations that are compensatory. In this study we focus on zoonotic transmissions in subtypes H1N1 - H3N2 and H5N1, and analyse complete genome sequences from the NCBI database. To gain a better understanding of the diversity and evolution of the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 precursor strains we undertook complete genome sequencing of archived European swine isolates using an Illumina platform. From over 600 archived isolates available, an initial selection of approximately 100 was made to include one isolate per subtype per country per year, prioritising H1N1 sequences from 1990 onwards. The evolutionary histories of the viral segments in the swine ‘flu lineages were investigated using time resolved phylogenetic trees (inferred using BEAST) and rates of evolution were calculated in different lineages. The detailed associations between mutations at amino acid sites and avian, swine and human host changes were inferred using Bayesian Graphical Models (BGMs). A BGM represents the direct conditional dependencies between variables as edges in a network, so distinguishes between direct and indirect interactions. To investigate the effect of host change on the appearance of mutations, and account for founder effects and shared ancestry, we use the mutational histories of the sites as variables. The mutational histories were inferred by using codon models (or host change model) fitted to phylogenetic trees. Our initial results show that mutations in the receptor binding site in Hemagglutinin are associated with host change (as expected) and also other changes in HA antigenic sites. Several sites in the polymerase complex were found to co-mutate with each other, and there were 7, 4 and 3 sites directly associated with host change in PB2, PB1 and PA respectively (including PB2-627 and PB2-701). For the NS1 protein, we found 4 sites directly related to host change including sites in SH3, RNA and CPSF30 binding domains. The results suggest that some key mutations are needed to adapt avian influenza viruses for mammalian epidemics, and that several compensatory mutations can occur to enable the virus to increase its fitness in its new environment. Keywords: Adaptation, mutations, modelling, Bayesian, swine influenza, Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have been shown to persist for extended periods of time in water under laboratory conditions. However, estimation of viral persistence in the environment is a difficult task since viruses are mostly associated with particulate matter which has a major effect on their survival. A germ carrier technique was adapted for use with influenza viruses in moist environments. The technique was employed to measure the persistence of 3 low pathogenic AIVs (H4N6, H5N1 and H6N8), one human influenza virus (H1N1) and two model viruses (NDV and ECBO) in lake water at five different temperatures (30, 20, 10, 0 and -10 °C). Persistence of all of the viruses was highest at 0 °C. Lower T-90 values at -10 °C than 0 °C were possibly due to deleterious effect of freeze thawing on infectivity of filter bound viruses leaving the germ carrier technique inappropriate for use at freezing temperatures. Generally, influenza viruses persisted shorter than model viruses while ECBO has the highest survival time in lake water. Individual influenza viruses were inconsistent in their tenacity at all temperatures. A comparison of tenacity of influenza viruses in suspension in lake water and adsorbed to germ carriers showed that the viruses persisted longer adsorbed to germ carriers at all temperatures except –10 °C. This may be important for the actual behavior of the viruses in the environment, as virus shed in fecal and respiratory material may persist longer than free virus. These findings suggest that AIVs can remain infectious in lake water for extended periods of time at low temperatures, allowing persistence of the viruses in the aquatic habitat over winter and possibly over years., Upon the realisation of a pandemic threat in April 2009 from a newly emerged H1N1 influenza virus, a global network of laboratories began the development of candidate vaccine viruses, viruses required by the vaccine industry for efficient vaccine manufacture. By the end of May 2009 several candidates were available, well before the WHO declared a pandemic on June 11. During the ensuing months further improvements were made to these viruses in order to increase the yield of vaccine antigen that could be derived. The above activities were established and practiced well before 2009 as part of pandemic preparedness; further activities in preparedness include the ongoing development of a ‘library’ of potential pandemic vaccine viruses and research into improving the yield of viral antigen so that the maximum number of doses of vaccine can be produced in the shortest time., Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) differ from all other strains by a polybasic cleavage site in their hemagglutinin (HA) and carry an HA with serotypes H5 or H7 only. In our investigations, we studied the ability of three low-pathogenic avian strains with the subtypes H3N8, H5N1 or H9N2 to transform into HPAIV after introduction of a polybasic HA cleavage site. As HPAIV originate from LPAIV, low-pathogenic H5N1 strains have to be considered potential precursors. Furthermore, the H9N2 strains are also of particular relevance because they became wide-spread across several countries and have been transmitted to humans. In contrast to their parent viruses, all polybasic cleavage HA site mutants were able to form plaques and replicate in cell-culture in the absence of trypsin. Therefore, in-vitro they resemble an HPAIV. However in chicken, they did not display high virulence. The H3 cleavage site mutants led only to few temporary clinical symptoms in some chickens accompanied with cloacal shedding whereas the H5 and H9 cleavage site mutants caused temporary non-lethal disease in all animals inoculated. However, a reassortants, derived from LPAIV H5N1 carrying the HA gene of an HPAIV, displayed a lethality of 30% and, furthermore, a reassortant consisting of seven HPAIV genes and the LPAIV HA with engineered cleavage site, exhibited the highest lethality of 80% resembling an authentic HPAIV. Remarkably, a reassortant expressing the H9 HA with engineered polybasic cleavage site and all the other genes from an H5N1 HPAIV is also highly pathogenic in chicken and, with an intravenous pathogenicity index of 1.23, meets the definition of an HPAIV. Overall, these results demonstrate that acquisition of a polybasic HA cleavage site is only one essential step for evolution of low-pathogenic strains into HPAIV. However, the H5N1 low-pathogenic strains may already have cryptic virulence potential. Beyond the polybasic cleavage site, H5N1 HPAIV carry additional virulence determinants which are located within the HA itself and in the other viral proteins. Furthermore, the finding that an artificial H9 polybasic cleavage site mutant displays the phenotype of an HPAIV, highlights that the H5 and H7 HA have the unique ability to gain a polybasic motif at their cleavage sites., Development of influenza vaccines that induce mucosal immunity has been highlighted by the World Health Organisation as a priority. An influenza vaccine's ability to induce mucosal immunity is important as it is correlated to early protection and protection against drifted influenza strains. The intranasal influenza vaccine mimics the course of a natural influenza infection thus providing the first line of defence. An intranasal vaccine offers a good strategy for efficient mass vaccination as it can be self administered. An efficient mass vaccination regime and dose-sparing strategies will be paramount to reduce morbidity and mortality of a future H5N1 pandemic. This study has investigated the immune response and the dose sparing potential of a chitosan adjuvanted intranasal H5N1 (RG-14) subunit (SU) vaccine. Groups of mice were intranasally vaccinated with one or two doses of a chitosan (5mg/ml) adjuvanted SU vaccine (7.5, 15 or 30μg haemagglutinin (HA)) or with a non-adjuvanted SU vaccine (30μg HA). Another group of mice were intranasally vaccinated with a whole H5N1 (RG-14) virus (WV) vaccine (15μg HA). We found that chitosan (ChiSys®), which is Archimedes' Proprietary intranasal delivery system, increased the number of double producing CD4+ cells and influenza specific antibody secreting cells. Local IgA was boosted by the second vaccine dose and two doses of chitosan adjuvanted vaccine enhanced the serum IgA and IgG response. The production of serum antibodies and the haemagglutination inhibition (HI) response against both the homologous vaccine strain and two heterologous H5N1 strains were also adjuvanted by chitosan. The quality of the B and T cellular response improved with higher doses of adjuvanted vaccine and chitosan showed dose sparing potential down to 7.5μg HA. The WV vaccine elicited the highest frequencies of multifunctional T helper cells (INFγ+, IL2+, INFα+). The cross strain serum reactivity, improved B and T cell responses and dose sparing potential of chitosan shows that a chitosan adjuvanted intranasal influenza vaccine is a strong candidate vaccine to induce a strong and broad protection at lower doses also in humans. Keywords: Chitosan, dose, H5N1, influenza, intranasal, vaccine, Pathogenicity of H5 subtype influenza virus in chickens is correlated with the amino acid sequence at the cleavage site of hemagglutinin (HA) protein. It is thought that other factors are involved to viral pathogenicity in chicken as well. Understanding of genetic traits of the pathogenicity would provide a target for prevention and/or control of influenza virus infection in poultries. Aim of our study is to elucidate gene constellations that confer the pathogenicity in chickens and host gene responses against the infection. Reverse genetic engineered recombinant viruses possessing the HA and NA genes from a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus, A/chicken/Yamaguchi/7/2004 (Yam; H5N1) were generated. Three of them, designated RGY, YY and YS, had all of internal gene segments derived from Yam, A/chicken/Yokohama/aq55/2001 (Yok; H9N2) or A/whistling swan/Shimane/580/2002 (Shi; H5N3), respectively. Others contained one or two internal gene segments (X) exchanged ones from YY to YS or vice versa (S_X/YY or Y_X/YS). Survival rate and period of the group of chickens infected by reassortants were subjected to the survival analysis. Gene expression in lung collected at 24 hrs pi was investigated by the microarray analysis. Relation between survival period and gene response in lung was analyzed among group of inoculated chickens that were different significantly in the survival analysis. By the survival analysis among the group of the chickens inoculated with reassorted viruses, they were categorized into three groups with statistical significance. Mean of survival period of YY and YS was 3.87 dpi and 3.33 dpi, and survival rate was 6.67% and 0% respectively. Survival period and rate of chickens inoculated with S_PA/YY and Y_MNS/YS were statistically longer (9.25-10 dpi) and higher (50-100%) than those of YY and YS. All of the chickens inoculated with S_MNS/YY, Y_PB1/YS and RGY died earlier (2-2.25 dpi) than YY and YS. Micro array analysis revealed that expression of 483 genes out of 38681 genes examined was correlated with survival time of the chickens. Gene ontology analysis demonstrated that most of these genes were categorized in either recognition of dsRNA or response to inflammation. These results suggested different constellation of internal gene segments would affect survival period and gene expression of the infected host. Keywords: Avian influenza, HPAI, pathogenicity, reverse genetics, chicken, gene constellation, microarray analysis
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- 2010
14. Re: Hjelp bøndene i kampen mot MRSA
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Akselsen, Per Espen, primary
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- 2016
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15. Antibiotic therapy in hospital, oral versus intravenous treatment
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Sæterdal, Ingvil von Mehren, Akselsen, Per-Espen, Berild, Dag, Harboe, Ingrid, Odgaard-Jensen, Jan, Reinertsen, Even, Vist, Gunn Elisabeth, Klemp, Marianne, and NOKC
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VDP::Medisinske Fag: 700 - Abstract
NORSK: Bakgrunn: Denne rapporten adresserer problemstillingen: Er det forskjell i effekt mellom peroral og intravenøs antibiotikabehandling av infeksjonssykdommer hos store og viktige pasientgrupper. Rapporten besvarer ikke spørsmålet om når (hvor tidlig) det kan skiftes fra intravenøs til peroral behandling. Metode: Vi baserte kunnskapsoppsummeringen på et litteratursøk etter systematiske oversikter i relevante bibliografiske databaser. For sykdommene lungebetennelse og urinveisinfeksjoner søkte vi også etter randomiserte kontrollerte studier. Vi sammenfattet og vurderte den samlede dokumentasjonen fra studier som oppfylte de forhåndsdefinerte inklusjonskriteriene. Vi oppsummerte resultater for seks hovedendepunkt: Totaldødelighet, helbredelsesrate, mislykket behandling, reinnleggelser, liggetid og alvorlige bivirkninger. Resultater: Vi inkluderte seks systematiske oversikter som har vurdert effekten av peroral versus intravenøs administrasjon av antibiotika for sykdommene lungebetennelse, urinveisinfeksjon, osteomyelitt, spontan bakteriell peritonitt og febril neutropeni hos kreftpasienter. I tillegg inkluderte vi 10 randomiserte kontrollerte studier. For de ulike endepunktene finner vi stort sett ikke signifikante forskjeller mellom peroral og intravenøs administrasjon av antibiotika. Kvaliteten på denne dokumentasjonen er lav og estimatene er dermed usikre. Konklusjon: Dokumentasjonen gir ikke grunnlag for å avgjøre om det er forskjell i effekt og sikkerhet for peroral versus intravenøs administrasjon av antibiotika. Dette betyr ikke at det ikke er forskjeller i administrasjonsmåte, men at resultatene er for usikre til at vi kan trekke konklusjoner om dette. ENGLISH: 1-page key messages Background: This report addresses the following question: Is there a difference in efficacy between oral and intravenous antibiotic treatment of infectious diseases for large and important groups of patients. The report does not answer the question of when (how soon) you can change from intravenous to oral treatment. Methods: We based this systematic review of a search for other systematic reviews in relevant bibliographic databases. For pneumonia and urinary tract infections, we also searched for randomized controlled trials. We compiled, analysed and graded the quality of the documentation. We summarized the results for six main outcomes: Total mortality, cure rates, treatment failure, re-admissions, length of stay in hospital and serious side effects. Results: We included six systematic reviews which evaluated the effect of oral versus intravenous administration of antibiotics for pneumonia, urinary tract infection, osteomyelitis, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and febrile neutropenia in cancer patients. In addition, we included 10 randomized controlled trials. On the whole, we did not find significant differences between oral and intravenous administration of antibiotics. The quality of this documentation is low and the estimates are therefore uncertain. Conclusion: The documentation provides no basis for determining whether there is difference in efficacy and side effects of oral versus intravenous administration of antibiotics. This does not mean that there are no differences in the administration route, but the results are too uncertain for us to draw conclusions about this.
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- 2010
16. Fundamentalisme eller beste praksis?
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Akselsen, Per Espen, primary
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- 2013
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17. National surveillance of surgical site infections after coronary artery bypass grafting in Norway: incidence and risk factors
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Berg, Thale Cathrine, primary, Kjørstad, Knut E., additional, Akselsen, Per Espen, additional, Seim, Bjørn Edvard, additional, Løwer, Hege Line, additional, Stenvik, Maryann Nesset, additional, Sorknes, Nina Kristine, additional, and Eriksen, Hanne-Merete, additional
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- 2011
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18. An adjuvanted pandemic influenza H1N1 vaccine provides early and long term protection in health care workers
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Madhun, Abdullah S., primary, Akselsen, Per Espen, additional, Sjursen, Haakon, additional, Pedersen, Gabriel, additional, Svindland, Signe, additional, Nøstbakken, Jane Kristin, additional, Nilsen, Mona, additional, Mohn, Kristin, additional, Jul-Larsen, Åsne, additional, Smith, Ingrid, additional, Major, Diane, additional, Wood, John, additional, and Cox, Rebecca J., additional
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- 2010
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19. Gentamicin should remain part of the empirical sepsis regimen for adults.
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Grønmo MM, Møller-Stray J, Akselsen PE, Lindemann PC, Fostervold A, Knudsen CV, Knudsen PK, Lindbæk M, Tonby K, and Sundsfjord A
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- Adult, Humans, Anti-Bacterial Agents adverse effects, Drug Therapy, Combination, Aminoglycosides therapeutic use, Gentamicins adverse effects, Sepsis drug therapy
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- 2024
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20. Consultation round: Antimicrobial treatment for sepsis.
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Wæhre T, Waagsbø B, Jordal S, Indrebø EM, Wang H, and Akselsen PE
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- Anti-Bacterial Agents therapeutic use, Humans, Referral and Consultation, Sepsis drug therapy
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- 2022
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21. Antibiotic use in hospitals in cases of COVID-19.
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Borén HK, Thaulow CM, Quist-Paulsen E, Wæhre T, Akselsen PE, and Tonby K
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- Adult, Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, China, Humans, Retrospective Studies, Risk Factors, SARS-CoV-2, Anti-Bacterial Agents, Coronavirus Infections, Inpatients, Pandemics, Pneumonia, Viral
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- 2020
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22. Choice of antibiotics – important change in test results from the microbiologist.
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Lindemann PC, Gammelsrud KW, Löhr IH, Akselsen PE, Lindbæk M, and Sundsfjord A
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- Amoxicillin administration & dosage, Amoxicillin pharmacology, Bacteria drug effects, Drug Resistance, Bacterial, Erythromycin administration & dosage, Erythromycin pharmacology, Humans, Meropenem administration & dosage, Meropenem pharmacology, Anti-Bacterial Agents administration & dosage, Anti-Bacterial Agents pharmacology, Microbial Sensitivity Tests standards
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- 2019
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23. [Not Available].
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Akselsen PE
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- 2016
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24. [Fundamentalism or best practice?].
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Akselsen PE
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- Humans, Evidence-Based Medicine, Practice Guidelines as Topic standards
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- 2013
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25. [Needlestick injuries and reporting routines].
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Husøy AM, Minde T, Knudsen H, and Akselsen PE
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- HIV Infections transmission, Hepatitis, Viral, Human transmission, Humans, Infectious Disease Transmission, Patient-to-Professional prevention & control, Medical Laboratory Personnel, Medical Staff, Hospital, Norway epidemiology, Nursing Staff, Hospital, Retrospective Studies, Risk Factors, Needlestick Injuries epidemiology, Needlestick Injuries prevention & control, Risk Management methods, Risk Management standards, Risk Management statistics & numerical data
- Abstract
Background: Health care workers are at risk for transmission of blood-borne agents through percutaneous exposure. Reporting of sharps injuries is essential for instigation of adequate post-exposure prophylaxis and follow-up. We aimed at providing an account of number of sharps injuries reported by type of health care worker and the reporting systems used for injuries that have an inherent risk of transmitting blood-borne agents., Material and Methods: The section for HSE (health, safety and environment) at Haukeland University Hospital provided us with an overview of requests for analyses of hepatitis and HIV linked to 159 sharps injuries that had not been reported otherwise. Injury reports at Haukeland University Hospital from the period 2003 - 2007 (n = 8556) were systematically reviewed., Results: On average, 210 sharps injuries are reported annually at Haukeland University Hospital. In addition analyses of hepatitis and HIV linked to 159 sharps injuries that had not been reported otherwise, were requested annually. 51 % of sharps injuries were reported by nurses, 10 % by laboratory workers, 6 % by doctors and 33 % by others., Interpretation: Sharps injuries are often not reported, and especially doctors fail to report them. Of health care workers, nurses report most sharps injuries. Related to numbers employed, laboratory workers report most sharps injuries.
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- 2010
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26. [Fighting antibiotic resistance].
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Harthug S and Akselsen PE
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- Adult, Anti-Bacterial Agents adverse effects, Bacterial Infections drug therapy, Bacterial Infections prevention & control, Bacterial Vaccines administration & dosage, Child, Global Health, Humans, Immunization Programs, Risk Factors, Viral Vaccines administration & dosage, Anti-Bacterial Agents administration & dosage, Communicable Disease Control methods, Drug Resistance, Microbial, Infection Control methods
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Background: Due to the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance, several infectious diseases are no longer treatable with standard drugs, and in many cases there are no adequate therapeutic options. Even though the situation in the Nordic countries is considerably better than in large parts of the world, we must also contribute to fight this development. In addition to continuing the prudent use of antibiotics, it is important to strengthen certain infection control strategies. WHO has stated that antibiotic resistance is a global health problem., Material and Methods: The article is based on personal experience from infection control and infectious diseases, and impressions from discussions in National and Nordic forums during the last years. We have also reviewed literature retrieved from non-systematic database searches., Results and Interpretation: The introduction of pneumococcal vaccine in the Norwegian Childhood Vaccination Programme will probably contribute to both reducing the use of antibiotics, and preventing the spread of pneumococci that are resistant to antibiotics. Increased influenza vaccination uptake, standard barrier precautions (hand hygiene etc.) against infections in health care institutions, isolation and surveillance of resistant bacteria are among the most important infection control measures that should be strengthened if we are to succeed.
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- 2008
27. [Infection control in long-term care facilities for the elderly].
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Eriksen HM, Elstrøm P, Harthug S, and Akselsen PE
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- Aged, Anti-Bacterial Agents administration & dosage, Bacterial Infections epidemiology, Bacterial Infections microbiology, Bacterial Infections prevention & control, Cross Infection prevention & control, Cross Infection transmission, Drug Utilization, Humans, Hygiene, Long-Term Care, Methicillin Resistance, Norway epidemiology, Prevalence, Cross Infection epidemiology, Health Services for the Aged, Infection Control
- Abstract
Background: In Norway, around 20 % of the elderly live in long-term care facilities. The risk of acquiring a nosocomial infection increases by age and the consequences of infections become more severe. This article describes the epidemiology of nosocomial infections and the use of antibiotics in long-term care facilities. Infection control measures are recommended., Material and Methods: We used data from the national prevalence surveys of nosocomial infections and from the national surveillance system for communicable diseases. In addition we reviewed current literature., Results: The prevalence of nosocomial infection is similar in hospitals and long-term care facilities in Norway, between 5 % and 10 %. Legal regulations require all health institutions in Norway to have an infection control programme, but little attention has been given to prevention of nosocomial infections in long-term care facilities. Less than 50 % of them have implemented the mandatory infection control programme. The vaccination coverage for influenza is only about 30 %. The coverage of pneumococcal vaccination is even lower., Interpretation: The following actions are recommended for all long-term care facilities: improved hand hygiene by introducing hand disinfection, implementation of infection control programmes, and improved coverage of pneumococcal and influenza vaccination. Employing more health care personnel, nurses as well as doctors, should be a goal.
- Published
- 2005
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