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A low-molecular-weight gel is one that is organized by small molecules via noncovalent bonds, and some low-molecular-weight gels already being used in our daily lives. In general, the mechanism of formation of low-molecular-weight gels involves the gelation of solvents such as ethanol and water in the presence of low-molecular-weight gelators, which have larger molecular weights than the solvents. The gelator creates a supramolecular network via noncovalent bonds, and this network holds the solvent molecules, causing them to lose fluidity and thereby promoting gelation. That is, low-molecular-weight gels do not self-assemble and gelate solvent molecules themselves; the literature contains no reports of the self-assembly and gelation of extremely small solvent molecules such as ethanol and water. However, in this work, we found that ethanol molecules themselves form a large gel structure by self-assembling with few-nanometer-diameter oxide nanoparticles and water molecules. Our finding reveals an intriguing phenomenon where ethanol molecules support the main structure of a large gel structure through supramolecular assembly via hydrogen bonding. The key factor for the gelation of ethanol observed in this study is the presence of BaZrO3 nanoparticles, which are positively charged and homogeneously dispersed. When these nanoparticles and water were present, we observed the gelation of a substantial amount of ethanol, which would not normally occur. Our results overturn the common belief that extremely small molecules such as ethanol cannot function as a main bearer of gelatinization, and our discovery opens a path to the development of a novel self-assembly system that has not been previously reported. In addition, because the method proposed in the present work can potentially be used to prepare gels that incorporate other extremely small molecules having hydrogen bonds, we expect our findings to lead to the development of various novel materials with unique functions.

To suppress CO2 emissions, technologies that incorporate CO2 capture, utilization, and storage are being actively developed. Particularly, batteries using CO2 redox reactions are one of the most promising systems that combine energy conversion and storage. However, the stoichiometric reactions of CO2 and metal restrict the CO2 storage capacity of previously proposed systems. Applying catalyst-mediated CO2 redox is expected to provide flexible control of the CO2 storage capacity without dependence on the metal content. Herein, we report novel aqueous flow battery using CO2–formate redox with a bifunctional homogeneous Ir catalyst. Using of an Ir catalyst bearing a 4-hydroxy-N-methylpicolinamidate ligand was demonstrated for 50 cycles, with a maximum discharge capacity of 1.5 Ah L-1, capacity decay of 0.20% cycle-1, and total turnover number of 3,500. Furthermore, as the design concept, the CO2 storage capacity of the catalyst-based flow battery was improved more than 1000 times compared to the previously proposed system.

We performed X-ray absorption studies for the electrolytes of a Ti-Mn redox flow battery (RFB) to understand the redox reaction of the Ti/Mn ions and formation of precipitates in charged catholyte, because suppression of the disproportionation reaction is a key to improve the cyclability of Ti-Mn RFB and enhance the energy density. Hard X-ray absorption spectroscopy with a high transmittance and soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy to directly observe the 3d orbitals were complementarily employed. Moreover, the Ti/Mn 3d electronic structure for each precipitate and solution in the charged catholyte was investigated by using scanning transmission X-ray microscopy: the valence of Mn in the precipitate is mostly attributed to 4+, and the solution includes only Mn

Germicidal lamps that emit primarily 254 nm ultraviolet radiation (UV) are routinely utilized for surface sterilization but cannot be used for human skin because they cause genotoxicity. As an alternative, 222‐nm UVC has been reported to exert sterilizing ability comparable to that of 254‐nm UVC without producing cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs), the major DNA lesions caused by UV. However, there has been no clear evidence for safety in chronic exposure to skin, particularly with respect to carcinogenesis. We therefore investigated the long‐term effects of 222‐nm UVC on skin using a highly photocarcinogenic phenotype mice that lack xeroderma pigmentosum complementation group A (Xpa‐) gene, which is involved in repairing of CPDs. CPDs formation was recognized only uppermost layer of epidermis even with high dose of 222‐nm UVC exposure. No tumors were observed in Xpa‐knockout mice and wild‐type mice by repetitive irradiation with 222‐nm UVC, using a protocol which had shown to produce tumor in Xpa‐knockout mice irradiated with broad‐band UVB. Furthermore, erythema and ear swelling were not observed in both genotype mice following 222‐nm UVC exposure. Our data suggest that 222‐nm UVC lamps can be safely used for sterilizing human skin as far as the perspective of skin cancer development., 222‐nm UVC have been reported to exert sterilizing ability comparable to that of 254‐nm UVC without producing cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs), the major DNA lesions caused by UV. We investigated the long‐term effects of 222‐nm UVC on skin using Xpa‐knockout mice, a highly photocarcinogenic phenotype mice. CPDs formation was recognized only in uppermost layer of epidermis with 222‐nm UVC exposure. No tumors were observed in Xpa‐knockout mice and wild‐type mice by repetitive irradiation with 222‐nm UVC. These data reveal that 222‐nm UVC lamps can be safely used for sterilizing human skin as far as the perspective of nonmelanoma skin cancer development.

Recently, redox flow batteries (RFBs) have attracted attention as a large-scale energy storage technology. To improve their energy density, we investigated organic-based active materials with high ...

In order to reduce the burden on the environment, there is a need to develop non-fluorinated electrolyte membranes as alternatives to fluorinated electrolyte membranes, and water electrolysis using hydrocarbon-based electrolyte membranes has been studied in recent years. In this paper, for the first time, we report elevated-temperature water electrolysis properties of crosslinked sulfonated polyphenylsulfone (CSPPSU) membranes prepared by sulfonation and crosslinking of hydrocarbon-based PPSU engineering plastics. The sulfone groups of the CSPPSU membrane in water were stable at 85 °C (3600 h) and 150 °C (2184 h). In addition, the polymer structure of the CSPPSU membrane was stable during small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements from room temperature to 180 °C. A current density of 456 mA/cm2 was obtained at 150 °C and 1.8 V in water electrolysis using the CSPPSU membrane and IrO2/Ti as the catalytic electrode for oxygen evolution. The stability of the CSPPSU membrane at elevated temperatures with time was evaluated. There were some issues in the assembly of the CSPPSU membrane and the catalytic electrode. However, the CSPPSU membrane has the potential to be used as an electrolyte membrane for elevated-temperature water electrolysis.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether carteolol eye drops, a β-adrenoceptor antagonist used as an intraocular hypotensive agent, has protective effects against the light-induced oxidative stress in retina. Dark-adapted pigmented rats were pre-treated with topical carteolol ophthalmic solution or saline and then exposed to visible light. The effects on electroretinogram (ERG), morphology, oxidative stress, and expression of mRNAs in the retinas were determined. The l-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine (BSO)/glutamate-induced oxidative stress in 661 W cells, a murine photoreceptor cell line, was evaluated by cell death assays, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and activation of caspase. In vivo studies showed that exposure to light caused a decrease in the amplitudes of ERGs and the outer nuclear layer (ONL) thickness and an increase of the 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG)-positive cells in the ONL. These changes were significantly reduced by pre-treatment with carteolol. Carteolol also significantly up-regulated the mRNA levels of thioredoxin 1 and glutathione peroxidase 1 compared to saline-treated group. Moreover, carteolol and timolol, another β-adrenoceptor antagonist, significantly inhibited BSO/glutamate-induced cell death and reduced caspase-3/7 activity and ROS production in vitro. Therefore, carteolol could protect retina from light-induced damage with multiple effects such as enhancing the antioxidative potential and decreasing the intracellular ROS production. Keywords: Carteolol hydrochloride, Light-induced retinal damage, Oxidative stress, Antioxidative potential, Reactive oxygen species

To observe details of three phase contact in a fuel cell catalyst layer and water distribution, we performed grazing incidence small-angle neutron scattering (GISANS) and neutron reflectivity (NR). We prepared a model catalyst on silicon(Si) substrates on which platinum(Pt) and Nafion thin layers are stacked. We employed two machines (KWS-1 and iMATERIA, respectively), which are monochromatic at FRM-II Germany and time-of-flight at J-PARC Japan. In case of Pt flat surface, which was prepared by sputtering, the influence due to humidification was observed in the vertical direction; a water layer could be confirmed between the Pt layer and the Nafion layer, increase in the thickness of the Nafion layer and increase in the water content of Nafion thin layer could be confirmed. The horizontal direction, on the other hand, water channels (microphase separation of Nafion) could not be observed in the core of thin Nafion layer. We also prepared the specimen, first Pt nano-particles are implanted in a surface of Si substrate and second Nafion thin layer covers by spin coating.

Sulfonated polyphenylsulfone (SPPSU) with a high ion exchange capacity (IEC) was synthesized using commercially available polyphenylsulfone (PPSU), and a large-area (16 &times, 18 cm2) crosslinked sulfonated polyphenylsulfone (CSPPSU) membrane was prepared. In addition, we developed an activation process in which the membrane was treated with alkaline and acidic solutions to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2), which forms as a byproduct during heat treatment. CSPPSU membranes obtained using this activation method had high thermal, mechanical and chemical stabilities. In I-ViR free studies for fuel cell evaluation, high performances similar to those using Nafion were obtained. In addition, from the hydrogen (H2) gas crossover characteristics, the durability is much better than that of a Nafion212 membrane. In the studies evaluating the long-term stabilities by using a constant current method, a stability of 4000 h was obtained for the first time. These results indicate that the CSPPSU membrane obtained by using our activation method is promising as a polymer electrolyte membrane.

For the first time, we report the effects of elevated temperatures, from 80 to 100 °C, on the changes in the states of water and ion–water channels and their correlation with the proton conductivity of Nafion NR212, which was investigated using a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy study. Experimentally, three types of water aggregates, protonated water (H+(H2O)n), nonprotonated hydrogen (H)-bonded water (H2O···H2O), and non-H-bonded water, were found in Nafion, and the existence of those three types of water was confirmed through ab initio molecular dynamics simulation. We found that the proton conductivity of Nafion increased for up to 80 °C, but from 80 to 100 °C, the conductivity did not increase; rather, all of those elevated temperatures showed identical conductivity values. The proton conductivities at lower relative humidities (RHs) (up to 50%) remained nearly identical for all elevated temperatures (80, 90, and 100 °C); however, from 60% RH (over λ = 4), the conductivity remarkably jumped for all elevated temperatures. The results indicated that the amount of randomly arranged water gradually increased and created more H-bonded water networks in Nafion at above 60% RH. From the deconvolution of the O–H bending band, it was found that the volume fraction fi (i=each deconvoluted band) of H-bonded water for elevated temperatures (>80–100 °C) increased remarkably higher than for 60 °C.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of blindness worldwide. Although the cause of AMD remains unknown, lipid peroxidation (LPO) end-products are critical molecules for its development. Herein, we report the imaging of lipid radicals, which are key factors in the LPO reaction, and therapeutic information using animal models.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are promising power generating devices due to their high energy densities and clean energy emission. Perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) based proton exchange membranes, such as Nafion membranes, which have high hydrolytic and oxidative stabilities and excellent proton conductivities are the most commonly used membranes in PEMFCs [1]. Recently, PFSA research has been focused on improving chemical and mechanical stabilities and degradations in the membranes and ionomers. PFSA membranes need to be thinner, lower cost and higher glass transition temperature (T g) materials and have higher conductivities at high temperature under low humidity conditions [2]. We studied Nafion composite membranes using various base additives [3–10]. Base additives were well incorporated into the nanostructure of the sulfonic acid phase in the Nafion polymers. Some base additives showed strong interactions among the hydrophilic terminal sulfonic acid functional groups on the nanoscale, which can be exploited to change the morphology in a nanostructure. From these results, we developed a new method for controlling the conduction path. Modifying the polymer structure of a Nafion membrane by adding a 1,2,4-triazole derivative and then removing it led to higher performance. The ion cluster size of the modified Nafion membrane was larger than that of the original Nafion membrane. The ion exchange capacity (IEC) was the same as that of the Nafion ionomer, but the conductivity was higher due to the modified membrane structure, which has a higher proton mobility. The cell performance of the modified Nafion membrane was better than that of Nafion 212, and in particular, the performance under low relative humidity (RH) conditions was improved. Our simple method using a 1,2,4-triazole derivative as an additive can be applied to the modification of other perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) and hydrocarbon polymer electrolytes and will contribute to the improvement of cell performances under high and low RH conditions. Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by the MEXT program for development of environmental technology using nanotechnology. References [1] K.A. Mauritz, R.B. Moore, Chem. Rev., 104, 4535–4585 (2004). [2] A. Kusoglu, A.Z. Weber, Chem. Rev., 117, 987–1104 (2017). [3] J.-D. Kim, Y. Oba, M. Ohnuma, M.-S. Jun, Y. Tanaka, T. Mori, Y.-W. Choi, and Y.-G. Yoon, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157, B1872–B1877 (2010). [4] J.-D. Kim, Y. Oba, M. Ohnuma, T. Mori, C. Nishimura, and I. Honma, Solid State Ionics 181, 1098–1102 (2010). [5] J.-D. Kim, T. Mori, S. Hayashi, and I. Honma, J. Electrochem. Soc. 154, A290–A294 (2007). [6] J.-D. Kim, M. Onhuma, C. Nishimura, T. Mori, and A. Kucernak, J. Electrochem. Soc. 156, B729–B734 (2009). [7] J.-D. Kim, M.-S. Jun, C. Nishimura, and Y.-W. Choi, ECS Transactions 35, 241–250 (2011). [8] J.-D. Kim, M.-S. Jun, and M.L. Divona, Fuel Cells 13, 65–71 (2013). [9] J.-D. Kim, L.-J. Ghil, M.-S. Jun, J.-K. Choi, H.-J. Chang, Y.-C. Kim, and H.-W. Rhee, J. Electrochem. Soc. 161, F724–F728 (2014). [10] J.-D. Kim, L.-J. Ghil, A. Ohira, ECS Transactions 85, 943–959 (2018).

We examined the cytoprotective effect of quercetin via activator protein (AP-1) and the heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) pathway against light-induced retinal degeneration in rats. Quercetin was administered intraperitoneally to Sprague-Dawley rats for seven days before light exposure to intense white fluorescent light (3000 lux) for 24 h. Light-induced retinal damage was determined by the number of rows of photoreceptor cell nuclei, the microstructures of the rod outer segments and retinal pigment epithelium, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated 2'-Deoxyuridine-5'-triphosphate (dUTP) nick end labeling. To elucidate the cytoprotective mechanism of quercetin, expression levels were measured in the rat retinas of 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), a marker of oxidative stress; Hsp70; and transcription factor AP-1 transcription activity. Pretreatment with quercetin inhibited light-induced photoreceptor cellular apoptosis and subsequent retinal degeneration in rats. 8-OHdG and Hsp70 protein expressions were up-regulated markedly by light exposure and suppressed by quercetin pretreatment. The results of an electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that AP-1-binding activity was activated by light exposure, and binding of c-Fos and c-Jun, but not JunB, mediated the binding activity. Intraperitoneal administration of quercetin decreases photooxidative damage in the retina and mediates cytoprotection against light-induced photoreceptor cell degeneration in rats. Suppression of the heterodimeric combination of c-Jun and c-Fos proteins at the AP-1 binding site is highly involved in quercetin-mediated cytoprotection.

Porous IrO2/Ti/IrO2 catalyst electrodes were obtained by coating IrO2 on both sides of three types of porous Ti powder sheets (sample 1, sample 2, and sample 3) using different surface treatment methods, and a hydrogen evolution catalyst electrode was obtained by coating Pt/C on carbon gas diffusion layers. A Nafion115 membrane was used as an electrolyte for the membrane electrode assemblies (MEA). Water electrolysis was investigated at cell temperatures up to 150 °C, and the electrical characteristics of the three types of porous IrO2/Ti/IrO2 catalyst electrodes were investigated. The sheet resistance of sample 1 was higher than those of samples 2 and 3, although during water electrolysis, a high current density was observed due to the nanostructure of the IrO2 catalyst. In addition, the structural stabilities of Nafion and Aquivion membranes up to 150 °C were investigated by using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The polymer structures of Nafion and Aquivion membranes were stable up to 80 °C, whereas the crystalline domains grew significantly above 120 °C. In other words, the initial polymer structure did not recover after the sample was heated above the glass transition temperature.

The local atomic information about the interface between the 30 nm-thick Pt polycrystalline films and the solution with and without perfluorosulfonic acid polymers (Nafion®) for the model cathode catalyst of fuel cell has been captured under electrochemical conditions using polarization-dependent total reflection fluorescence x-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy (PTRF–XANES). The results show that the formation of sub-monolayer-equivalent PtO or adsorbed hydrogen/oxygen species in the surface region can be successfully observed in the PTRF–XANES spectra when the thickness of the solution layer and the incidence angle are properly controlled. This capability enables us to examine the metal /(Nafion®/) solution interface structure through XANES together with other surface analysis methods, which will enhance comprehensive understanding of the nature of the interface of the fuel cell system.

The temporal inverted internal limiting membrane flap technique, which is a simple surgical strategy to treat macular holes, provides scaffolding for retinal gliosis and may facilitate bridge formation between the walls of the macular hole beneath the flap. The procedure may be a good option to achieve macular hole closure without postoperative prone positioning., Purpose: To report the surgical technique and efficacy of the temporal inverted internal limiting membrane (ILM) flap technique for a patient with an idiopathic macular hole (MH) who is unable to maintain postoperative prone positioning. Methods: Case report. Results: A 73-year-old man with a Stage III MH in his left eye was scheduled to undergo surgery. Owing to his inability to maintain postoperative prone positioning for continuous placement of a transdermal bladder catheter after radical cystoprostatectomy to treat urinary bladder cancer, he underwent pars plana vitrectomy combined with the temporal inverted ILM flap technique and intraocular sulfur hexafluoride gas tamponade. The technique included ILM peeling at a temporal area of the macula to create one 2-disk-diameter semicircular ILM flap and inversion of the ILM flap nasally to cover the MH. Optical coherence tomography showed that MH closure started from the top of the MH just beneath the covered ILM flap; the closure process gradually extended toward the bottom of the MH. The well-aligned fovea recovered in 5 weeks postoperatively. The visual acuity was 20/200 preoperatively and improved to 20/50 postoperatively. Conclusion: The temporal inverted ILM flap technique, a simple surgery to treat MHs, provides scaffolding for retinal gliosis and may facilitate bridge formation between the walls of the MH beneath the flap. The procedure may be a good option to achieve MH closure without postoperative prone positioning.

Infrared absorption spectra of hydrated protons are very sensitive to their different structures that change with the number of water molecules as well as their hydrogen bonds with anions and/or solvent molecules. Hydronium ion (H3O+) in nonaqueous solutions of trifluoromethanesulfonic (triflic) acid monohydrate shows largely red-shifted and very broad OH stretching bands in their infrared absorption spectra. We found that four triflate anions and four hydronium ions form a hydrogen-bonded cluster in which sulfur and oxygen atoms of anions and cations have a cubic structure with red-shifted OH stretching bands; from its ab initio molecular dynamics simulation large widths of the OH stretching absorption bands were successfully reproduced. Based on the very similar infrared absorption bands of perfluorinated sulfonic acid ionomer membranes with low water content their acid sites are supposed to have very similar cluster configurations.

Infrared absorption spectra of hydrated protons are very sensitive to the number and arrangements of water molecules. OH stretching absorption bands of Eigen cation (H 9 O 4 + ) are largely red-shifted to below 3000 cm −1 . Such largely red-shifted OH stretching bands are also observed in IR spectra of hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid monohydrates in solid phase and hydrogen bonds of hydronium ion (H 3 O + ) between three different ligand molecules are supposed to induce large red shift. However, while the narrow OH stretching bands of hydrochloric acid monohydrate has been successfully reproduced by ab initio molecular dynamics simulation, origin of the much broader OH stretching bands of sulfuric acid monohydrate has not been fully investigated. In this study we perform ab initio molecular dynamics simulation of sulfuric acid monohydrate whose crystal structure has been determined by X-ray diffraction. Dipole moments of ions in a unit cell are calculated and their autocorrelation function is Fourier-transformed to obtain an IR spectrum which reproduces the largely red-shifted and broad OH stretching bands. The same procedure is also successfully applied to sulfuric acid tetrahydrate which contains Zundel type cation (H 5 O 2 + ) indicating capability of the method to simulate vibrational spectra of hydrogen bonded systems in condensed phase.

The structural and dynamic properties of a brush-type hydrocarbon copolymer are investigated using first-principles molecular dynamics simulations. Two model compounds, one with mainly hydrophilic domains and one with mainly hydrophobic domains, were selected and used in the simulations. A series of radial distribution functions of different groups, such as water–water, sulfonic group–hydrogen, and ether–hydrogen, is obtained to investigate the structure of the whole systems. The radial distribution functions of sulfonic groups, gS–S(r), and the structure of water clusters indicate the formation of a well-developed water channel in the studied copolymer. Analysis of proton dissociation reveals that the protons in both systems are not completely dissociated when the number of water molecules per sulfonic group is equal to 4. The low dissociation nature of this copolymer compared with that of Nafion is explained by its intrinsic acid strength and the presence of ineffective hydrogen bonds in the system, whe...

Purpose To compare changes in macular pigment optical density (MPOD) and serum lutein concentration between free lutein and lutein esters supplements in healthy Japanese individuals. Methods Twenty healthy subjects (age range, 22–47 years) were recruited into this prospective, randomized, doubled-blind comparative study. Individuals were evenly divided into two groups: free lutein group, supplementation with 10 mg of free lutein; or lutein esters group, supplementation with 20 mg of lutein esters equivalent to 10 mg of free lutein. Each participant took either type of oral lutein daily for 3 months. The serum lutein concentrations and MPOD levels were measured at baseline and 3 and 6 months after the start of supplementation. Results There were no significant differences in the serum lutein concentrations and MPOD levels at baseline between the groups. The increased serum lutein concentration and MPOD levels at 3 months were respectively, 89% and 38% in the free lutein group and 97% and 17% in the lutein esters group. The serum lutein concentrations in both groups and MPOD levels in the free lutein group increased significantly (p

Large-scale storage batteries include lithium-ion batteries, sodium-sulfur batteries, lead-acid batteries, and redox flow batteries (RFBs),1-3 and these storage batteries have been used for distributed power systems in various places depending on the size and application. Above all, although RFBs4,5 have technical issues, including energy density lower than that of other storage batteries, and their vanadium content makes them expensive, they have long life and high design flexibility. In addition, they operate at normal temperature and pose no danger of thermal runaway or explosion. Therefore, the advantages of RFBs have been attracting attention as one way to achieve power leveling for renewable energy. More recently, research on alternative technology, such as organic, Ti-Mn,6 or hybrid RFBs,7-9 has become active, and in terms of performance, some alternative RFBs, especially organic RFBs, have become comparable to high-cost vanadium RFBs. One of the greatest features of organic RFBs is that it is possible to increase the energy density by controlling the solubility and redox potential based on molecular design, and pioneering and unique research has been reported so far.10-14 The electron transfer reaction rate of the active material in an organic RFB is larger than that in a vanadium RFB, and the reactivity with the carbon electrode is relatively good. For this reason, continued development of RFBs is expected to provide a new power storage technology that can flexibly cope with being combined with other secondary batteries and hydrogen production technologies. Currently, we are focusing on viologen units and have newly synthesized an assemblage of viologen molecules with relatively high symmetry and a regular structure. We are adopting that concept for active material design and aim at improving RFB performance by increasing both the solubility of the designed viologen assembly and the redox response of the individual introduced viologen molecules. Here, we report the application of this idea to aqueous RFBs using newly synthesized viologen molecular units for an anolyte with a relatively high symmetry and regular structure. [1] B. Zakeri, and S. Syri, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 569 (2015). [2] F. Shi, Reactor and Process Design in Sutainable Energy Technology, Elsevier (2016). [3] B. Dunn, H. Kamath, and J. -M. Tarascon, Science, 334, 928 (2011). [4] J. Noack, N. Roznyatovskaya, T. Herr, P. Fischer, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 54, 9776 (2015). [5] G. L. Soloveichik, Chem. Rev., 115, 11533 (2015). [6] Y. R. Dong, H. Kaku, K. Hanafusa, , K. Moriuchi, T. Shigematsu, ECS Trans., 69, 59 (2015). [7] Y. Xu, Y. Wen, J. Cheng, G. Cao, Y. Yang, Electrochem. Commun., 11, 1422 (2009). [8] X. Wei, W. Xu, M. Vijayakumar, L. Cosimbescu, T. Liu, V. Sprenkle, W. Wang, T. Adv. Mater., 26, 7649 (2014). [9] B. Huskinson, M. P. Marshak, C. Suh, S. Er, M. R. Gerhardt, C. J. Galvin, X. Chen, A. Aspuru-Guzik, R. G. Gordon, M. J. Aziz, Nature, 505, 195 (2014). [10] B. Yang, L. Hoober-Burkhardt, F. Wang, G. K. S. Prakash, S. R. Narayanan, J. Electrochem. Soc. 161, A1371 (2014). [11] J. Winsberg, C. Stolze, S. Muench, F. Liedl, Martin D. Hager, U. S. Schubert, ACS Energy Lett. 1, 976 (2016). [12] K. Lin, R. Gómez-Bombarelli, E. S. Beh, L. Tong, Q. Chen, A. Valle, A. Aspuru-Guzik, M. J. Aziz, R. G. Gordon, Nat. Energy, 1, 16102 (2016). [13] A. Hollas, X. Wei, V. Murugesan, Z. Nie, B. Li, D. Reed, J. Liu, V. Sprenkle, W. A Wang, Nat. Energy, 3, 508 (2018). [14] T. Janoschka, N. Martin, U. Martin, C. Friebe, S. Morgenstern, H. Hiller, M. D. Hager, U. S. Schubert, Nature 527, 78 (2015).