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An intersection is a typical emission hot spot in the urban traffic network. And frequent violations such as running the red light have been a critical social problem at signalized intersections in developing countries. This article aimed to quantify the impact of violations (behaviors which will block the fleet) on emissions at signalized intersections. Increased emissions of vehicles affected by violations are of two levels: (1) trajectory level for the first four affected vehicles and (2) traffic flow level for the subsequent vehicles. At the trajectory level, the study focuses on the second-by-second activities of the first four affected vehicles. First, the trajectory model of the first affected vehicle is developed. Then, the trajectory of the other three vehicles is constructed using the Gipps car-following model. At the traffic flow level, a linear emission model is developed to describe the relationship between emission factors and idling time in the one-stop (vehicle stop once) and two- stop (vehicle stop twice) scenarios based on the global position system (GPS)-collected data at 44 intersections in Beijing. Based on the linear emission model, increased emissions at the traffic flow level are calculated as knowing the number of stops and idling time before and after violations. The analysis of the subsequent vehicles is divided into unsaturated and saturated conditions. Under the unsaturated condition, the emissions have barely increased due to the increase of idling time for one-stop vehicles caused by the violations. Under the saturated conditions, the emission increment increases sharply as the one-stop vehicle gradually transforms to a two-stop vehicle because of violations, and the maximum emission increment reaches 45% in half an hour in the case. The increment of emissions decreases steadily as the proportion of two-stop vehicles reaches 100% after violations, while the proportion before violations keeps increasing., 1. Introduction In recent years, urban vehicle pollution has threatened human health. Air pollutants can cause pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and decrease lung function [1]. [...]

This paper examines the relationship between global energy security and climate change policy. There are growing concerns about the sustainability of the future supply of hydrocarbons. The energy system is the single largest source of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, therefore it is no surprise that decarbonising the supply of energy services is a key element of climate change policy. The central proposition of this paper is that the world faces a global energy dilemma: can we have secure, reliable and affordable supplies of energy and, at the same time, manage the transition to a low-carbon energy system? The paper is divided into five sections. The first section considers the contemporary challenges to global energy security, focusing on the possibility that in the future oil production might not be able to meet demand. The second section considers how the perils of climate change are forcing us to rethink the very meaning of energy security such that a low-carbon energy revolution is now called for. The third section explains that while the developed world is largely responsible for the anthropogenic carbon emissions currently in the atmosphere, a global shift in energy demand is underway and over the next 20 years it is the developing world that will contribute an ever-increasing share of global emissions. The fourth section introduces the notion of the global energy dilemma nexus to explain how the processes of globalisation are the driving force behind this global shift in energy demand and carbon emissions. The final section explains how the global energy dilemma nexus plays itself out in different ways across the globe. The conclusions suggest that human geography can make a significant contribution to social science research on energy security and climate change. KEY WORDS: energy security, climate change, globalisation, peak oil, low carbon

In this paper, we explore how organizations influence the unethical behavior of their employees. Using a unique data set of over three million vehicle emissions tests, we find strong evidence of ethical spillovers from firms to individuals. When inspectors work across different organizations, they adjust the rate at which they pasfvs vehicles to the norms of those with whom they work. These spillovers are strongest at large facilities and corporate chains, and weakest for the large-volume inspectors. These results are consistent with the economics literature on productivity spillovers from organizations and peers and suggest that managers can influence the ethics of employee behavior through both formal norms and incentives. The results also suggest that employees have persistent ethics that limit the magnitude of this influence. These results imply that if ethical conformity is important to the financial and legal health of the organization, managers must be vigilant in their hiring, training, and monitoring to ensure that employee behavior is consistent with firm objectives. Key words: peer effects; spillovers; fraud; corruption; productivity; ethics History: Accepted by Olav Sorenson, organizations and social networks; received May 16, 2007. This paper was with the authors 91/2 months for 2 revisions. Published online in Articles in Advance October 10, 2008., 1. Introduction The influence of organizations on individual behavior has been broadly studied in the economics, sociology, and management literatures. Both theoretical work and empirical research have examined how organizations [...]

BACKGROUND: Several studies have found an effect on mortality of between-city contrasts in long-term exposure to air pollution. The effect of within-city contrasts is still poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: We studied [...]

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2005.03.001 Byline: Valerie A. Thompson (a), Jonathan St. B.T. Evans (b), Simon J. Handley (b) Keywords: Conditional reasoning; Pragmatics; Informal reasoning; Deduction; Argument; Persuasion; Dual process theory Abstract: Informal reasoning typically draws on a wider range of inferential behaviour than is measured by traditional inference tasks. In this paper, we developed several tasks to study informal reasoning with two novel types of conditional statements: Persuasions (e.g., if the Kyoto accord is ratified, greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced) and dissuasions (e.g., if the Kyoto accord is ratified, there will be a downturn in the economy). For these statements, the consequent event, q, is offered as an incentive or disincentive for undertaking action p. Forty-eight university students reasoned about the statements from the point of view of the writer; another forty-eight reasoned from their own perspective. We found that reasoning about these statements involves a sophisticated chain of implicit inferences (e.g., a downturn in the economy should be avoided; ratifying the accord will produce a downturn; in order to avoid a downturn the accord should not be ratified) in support of an implicit conclusion (i.e., the accord should not be ratified). When generating arguments to either support or refute a position, reasoners relied on two main strategies: addressing the truth of the conditional or arguing the merits of undertaking action p (i.e., ratifying the Kyoto accord). Finally, using a traditional conditional arguments task, we found that reasoners were more likely to adopt a deductive strategy when reasoning from the writer's point of view than their own point of view, even though we did not include any instructions to reason logically. We discuss the relevance of these findings for formal and informal models of reasoning, the writer's theory of mind, and the role of pragmatic implicatures in reasoning. Author Affiliation: (a) Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, 9 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5A5 (b) University of Plymouth, UK Article History: Received 7 May 2004; Revised 22 February 2005 Article Note: (footnote) [star] This research was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and by the Economic and Social Research Council of Great Britain. The authors thank Jamie Campbell, Stephen Newstead, Kealee Playford, and Jody Shynkaruk for the thoughtful comments they provided on an earlier version of this manuscript.

Conventional multivariate regression can hide important local variations in the relationships among independent and dependent variables in models of environmental equity. Geographically weighted regression (GWR), in combination with choropleth mapping, can reveal this spatial nonstationarity and shed light on its form. We use GWR, in combination with conventional univariate and multivariate statistics, to model the density of air toxic releases in New Jersey, as listed in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Toxic Release Inventory (TRI). The GWR analysis shows that the relationships among race, class, employment, urban concentration, and land use with air toxic release density in New Jersey vary significantly over space. Generally, there is a positively significant relationship of minorities with air toxic releases over a large swath of urban and suburban New Jersey, although this pattern is not evident for all urban areas. Northeast New Jersey, the most densely populated part of the state, contains areas of both significantly positive and negative relationships between concentrations of minorities and air toxic releases. The association of minorities with concentrations of air toxic releases, where observed, is often mediated by other factors, though the role of these mediating factors also varies from place to place. In some of these areas the minority--air-toxic-release association is mediated by high poverty rates, in other areas, by the presence of industrial, commercial, and transportation land uses. Key Words: environmental justice, environmental racism, geographically weighted regression, spatial statistics, spatial analysis.

Paul J. Crutzen, F. Sherwood Rowland, and Mario J. Molina received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 for the work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone. The work recognized by the prize began as basic research into atmospheric properties and into the fate of specific molecules in the atmosphere. The work led in time to a very important and unforeseen environmental application, the discovery of the chemical mechanisms for the destruction of stratospheric ozone. Over time the work led to international agreements to limit production and use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The laureates were influential in the debates on CFCs, both from the political perspective and the social. Crutzen's work on NOx and ozone was done in Sweden, the US, and in the UK. The other two researchers studied CFCs and ozone in the US. An account of the lives of the laureates is included in the article.