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Antibiotic resistance is currently an extensive medical challenge worldwide, with global numbers increasing steadily. Recent data have highlighted wastewater treatment plants as a reservoir of resistance genes. The impact of these findings for human health can best be summarized using a One Health concept. However, the molecular mechanisms impacting resistance spread have not been carefully evaluated. Bacterial viruses, that is bacteriophages, have recently been shown to be important mediators of bacterial resistance genes in environmental milieus and are transferrable to human pathogens. Herein, we investigated the biogeographical impact on resistance spread through river-borne bacteriophages using amplicon deep sequencing of the microbiota, absolute quantification of resistance genes using ddPCR, and phage induction capacity within wastewater. Microbial biodiversity of the rivers is significantly affected by river site, surrounding milieu and time of sampling. Furthermore, areas of land associated with agriculture had a significantly higher ability to induce bacteriophages carrying antibiotic resistance genes, indicating their impact on resistance spread. It is imperative that we continue to analyse global antibiotic resistance problem from a One Health perspective to gain novel insights into mechanisms of resistance spread.

Surface water is one of the primary sources of irrigation water for produce production; therefore, its contamination by foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella, may substantially impact public health. In this study, we determined the presence of Salmonella in surface water and characterized the relationship between Salmonella detection and environmental and anthropogenic factors. From April 2019 to February 2020, 120 samples from 30 sites were collected monthly in four watersheds located in two different central Chile agricultural regions (N = 1080). Water samples from rivers, canals, streams, and ponds linked to each watershed were obtained. Surface water (10 L) was filtrated in situ, and samples were analyzed for the presence of Salmonella. Salmonella was detected every month in all watersheds, with a mean detection percentage of 28% (0%-90%) across sampling sites, regardless of the season. Overall, similar detection percentages were observed for both regions: 29.1% for Metropolitan and 27.0% for Maule. Salmonella was most often detected in summer (39.8% of all summer samples tested positive) and least often in winter (14.4% of winter samples). Random forest analysis showed that season, water source, and month, followed by latitude and river, were the most influential factors associated with Salmonella detection. The influences of water pH and temperature (categorized as environmental factors) and factors associated with human activity (categorized as anthropogenic factors) registered at the sampling site were weakly or not associated with Salmonella detection. In conclusion, Salmonella was detected in surface water potentially used for irrigation, and its presence was linked to season and water source factors. Interventions are necessary to prevent contamination of produce, such as water treatment before irrigation.

Objective The objective of this scoping review is to identify and map existing evidence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in water in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), while also identifying the gaps in AMR information in the region in eight themes of interest. Introduction Antimicrobial resistance is a public health concern that has gained increasing global awareness. Concerns have been raised toward the importance of the environment's role in the dissemination of clinically relevant AMR. Although studies on AMR have been conducted, the reality of the role of the environment in the LAC region has not been studied. Inclusion criteria Articles that examine AMR in water in the LAC region will be considered for inclusion. Antimicrobial resistance will be defined as a natural process that arises when the microorganisms that cause infection (e.g. bacteria) survive exposure to a drug that would normally kill them or stop their growth. The search will focus on eight themes of interest, as defined in the protocol, relating to the presence of resistant microorganisms in water sources and reported negative health effects. Qualitative and quantitative studies will be considered for inclusion. Reviews and gray literature will be excluded. Methods The proposed scoping review will be conducted in accordance with the JBI methodology for scoping reviews. A search for published literature will be performed in PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus. Independent screening of articles will be performed by examining the abstracts and then the full texts, utilizing pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data for specific variables will be extracted, and descriptive examination will be performed.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a major threat to human and animal health. Part of the AMR dimension is the circulation of extended-spectrum β-lactamases producing-Escherichia coli (ESBL-E. coli), which is now commonly reported among companion animals. However, the global perspective of the prevalence and population structure of ESBL-E. coli circulating in dogs and cats has not been estimated limiting our understanding of their role in the dissemination of ESBL-E. coli. The aim of this study was to compare the prevalence of ESBL-E. coli between dogs and cats and across countries through meta-analysis. We also performed a scoping review to summarize the current knowledge on ESBL genes and E. coli clones circulating among companion animals. A total of 128 studies published in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus up to April 2020 were selected and contained information on prevalence and/or molecular characterization of ESBL genes and ESBL-E. coli clones. Our review shows an increase in the number of publications between 2000 and 2019, concentrated mainly in Europe. Prevalence varied across continents, ranging from 0.63% (Oceania) to 16.56% (Africa) in dogs and from 0% (Oceania) to 16.82% (Asia) in cats. Although there were twice as many studies reporting prevalence on dogs (n = 61) than on cats (n = 32), and only 9 studies focused exclusively on cats, our meta-analysis showed no difference in the global prevalence of ESBL-E. coli between dogs (6.87% [95% CI: 4.46–10.45%]) and cats (5.04% [95% CI: 2.42–10.22%]). A considerable diversity of ESBL genes (n = 60) and sequence types (ST) (n = 171) were recovered from companion animals. ESBL-E. coli encoded by CTX-M-15 (67.5%, 77/114) and SHV-12 (21.9%, 25/114), along with resistant strains of ST38 (22.7%, 15/66) and ST131 (50%, 33/66) were widespread and detected in all continents. While presence of ESBL-E. coli is widespread, the drivers influencing the observed ESBL-E. coli prevalence and the clinical relevance in veterinary medicine and public health along with economic impact of ESBL-E. coli infections among companion animals need to be further investigated.

This report summarizes key messages related to agricultural water quality as discussed by an ad hoc panel at the 1st International Symposium of Food Safety in Santiago, Chile. Participating representatives of the academia, industry and government of diverse geographical backgrounds and the audience discussed topics such as (1) implications of the US Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA: www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/FSMA/ucm277706.htm) on the Agricultural Water Quality, (2) comparisons between MPN and CFU in analyzing water quality, (3) alternatives to fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) to be used as indicators to evaluate water quality, and (4) vegetative buffers as an alternative to reduce pathogen loads in agricultural surface waters. Panelists identified the following key messages for each topic discussed that are related to agricultural water quality: (1) the FSMA regulation and the new guidance document elaborated by the EC are highly relevant as they provide a definition of agricultural water and specific criteria for different water uses and circumstances; (2) FSMA supports modification from MPN to CFU; (3) Growers require more alternatives for treatment of agricultural water; (4) Vegetative buffers are a potential practical and feasible alternative for agriculture producers to reduce the pathogen and fecal pollution loads of in their agricultural waters.

The aim of this review was to understand the research that has been conducted in South American countries to detect or quantify major water and foodborne pathogens, with the aim of identifying advancements and gaps in food safety in the region. This systematic review focused on the following major bacterial pathogens: Salmonella spp., Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter spp., along with the protozoal pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia. For this review, we searched for research articles conducted in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. This study identified the following as major advancements: (i) research articles on pathogens in the food chain in South America have increased in this decade and (ii) studies have diversified detection methods in different food groups. In addition, the following points were identified as major gaps: (i) most of the food safety research has been conducted in Brazil and Argentina and (ii) scarce studies have quantified foodborne pathogens, which is crucial for risk assessment. Strengthening the scientific evidence of human exposure to major pathogens in food and water is necessary in this region, and it should be prioritized in public research funding.

Background Food safety is a priority for all stakeholders associated with the food supply and consumption. Outbreaks and recalls caused by microbial pathogens are widely attributed to contaminated foods, and lead to considerable public health and economic burdens. Scope and approarch This review presented major current trends in food safety research, regulation and strategic development. Specifically we discussed about: (i) worldwide application of genomic data in foodborne pathogen surveillance and outbreak investigation; (ii) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in food safety to prevent and predict pathogen contamination; (iii) modeling tools adapted from landscape ecology, network analysis and niche modeling to prevent foodborne diseases; and (iv) meta-analysis of food safety data to facilitate decision making. Key findings and conclusions While some of these technologies are receiving increasing recognition around the world (e.g., WGS), others are still at their infancy in regards to their application in food safety (e.g., meta-analysis). The establishment of relevant, valid and multi-dimensional databases is the key to effective application of many new trends in food safety described in this review.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. are waterborne, fecally-transmitted pathogens that cause economic loss due to gastroenteritis and beach closures. We applied quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to determine the health risks for humans and sea otters due to waterborne exposure of Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. when swimming in three types of surface waters: river, stormwater and wastewater effluent during the wet and dry seasons in the central coast of California. This is the first application of QMRA to estimate both the probability of infection in Southern sea otters and the probability of illness in humans, using microbial source tracking (MST) as a variable. Children swimming close to stormwater discharges had an estimated Cryptosporidium-associated illness probability that exceeded the accepted U.S. EPA criteria (32 illnesses/1000 swimmers or 3.2%). Based on the assumption that sea otters are as susceptible as humans to Cryptosporidium infection, the infection probabilities were close to 2% and 16% when sea otters were swimming at the end of points of rivers and stormwater discharges, respectively. In the case of Giardia, infection probabilities of 11% and 23% were estimated for sea otters swimming at the end of point of wastewater discharges, assuming that sea otters are as susceptible as gerbils and humans, respectively. The results of this QMRA suggest that 1) humans and sea otters are at risk when swimming at outflow sites for rivers, stormwater and treated wastewater effluent; 2) reduced loads of viable protozoan cysts and oocysts in recreational water can lessen the probability of infection of humans and sea otters; and 3) the risk of infection of humans and sea otters can be reduced with the treatment of wastewater to decrease oocyst and cyst viability before effluent is released into the sea.

Salmonella enterica is one of the main causes of gastrointestinal disease worldwide. Wild birds are capable of harboring a variety of Salmonella serovars, which could have an important role in the epidemiology of salmonellosis in humans and production animals. We tested 519 fecal samples from raptors and aquatic birds from different regions of central (three rehabilitation centers for wildlife and the coastal area) and southern areas of Chile for Salmonella. All samples were obtained in 2015 and 2017, covering all four seasons. Salmonella was isolated from 12 of the 519 samples (2%) analyzed, from two carnivorous birds, four birds with generalist habits, and six waterfowl. Among the isolates obtained, one showed resistance to gentamicin, and one showed a multidrug-resistance phenotype, with resistance to ampicillin, ceftriaxone, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, gentamicin, kanamycin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and tetracycline. These results demonstrated the importance of characterizing Salmonella in wild birds because previous studies have shown genetic and phenotypic evidence suggesting interspecies transmission of Salmonella enterica that is resistant to antimicrobials between humans and wild and domestic birds.

Objective—To estimate the time of seroconversion to the New Jersey serotype of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSNJV) in sentinel cattle of dairy herds located at high and low elevations in southern Mexico and to determine the factors associated with an increase in VSNJV transmission. Animals—471 dairy cattle in 4 free-ranging dairy herds located at high and low elevations in southern Mexico. Procedures—Serum samples from all cattle were screened by use of serum neutralization (SN) tests for antibodies against VSNJV. Cattle with SN titers < 1:20 were designated as sentinel cattle and tested every 10 weeks for seroconversion to VSNJV (SN titer ≥ 1:80). A Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to compare the hazard for seroconversion between sentinel cattle located at high and low elevations and kept under similar management and nutritional conditions. Results—Hazard of VSNJV seroconversion was significantly higher for sentinel cattle located at high elevations, compared with the hazard for sentinel cattle located at low elevations. Dairy cattle located at high elevations seroconverted to VSNJV more frequently during the rainy season and the beginning of the dry season. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Seroconversion to VSNJV was more likely in dairy cattle in southern Mexico located at high elevations than in dairy cattle located at low elevations. These findings should contribute to understanding the dynamics of VSNJV infection in endemic areas and should be useful in the design of effective preventive and control strategies to decrease the impact of future VSV incursions.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are of public health importance, with recognized transmission through recreational waters. Therefore, both can contaminate marine waters and shellfish, with potential to infect marine mammals in nearshore ecosystems. A 2-year study was conducted to evaluate the presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in mussels located at two distinct coastal areas in California, namely, (i) land runoff plume sites and (ii) locations near sea lion haul-out sites, as well as in feces of California sea lions (CSL) ( Zalophus californianus ) by the use of direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) detection methods and PCR with sequence analysis. In this study, 961 individual mussel hemolymph samples, 54 aliquots of pooled mussel tissue, and 303 CSL fecal samples were screened. Giardia duodenalis assemblages B and D were detected in hemolymph from mussels collected near two land runoff plume sites (Santa Rosa Creek and Carmel River), and assemblages C and D were detected in hemolymph from mussels collected near a sea lion haul-out site (White Rock). These results suggest that mussels are being contaminated by protozoa carried in terrestrial runoff and/or shed in the feces of CSL. Furthermore, low numbers of oocysts and cysts morphologically similar to Cryptosporidium and Giardia , respectively, were detected in CSL fecal samples, suggesting that CSL could be a source and a host of protozoan parasites in coastal environments. The results of this study showed that Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. from the feces of terrestrial animals and CSL can contaminate mussels and coastal environments.

Giardia duodenalisis a zoonotic protozoan parasite with public health importance worldwide. While articles about animal model infectivity have been published forG. duodenalis, the studies have used diverse protocols and parameters to evaluate the infectivity of this protozoan parasite. Hence, the objectives of this study were to (1) conduct a meta-analysis of published literature for cyst shedding and diarrhea outcomes in animal models and (2) develop recommendations to help standardize experimental dose response studies. Results showed that, for the outcome of cyst shedding in faeces, the covariates of infective stage (cyst versus trophozoite),Giardiadose, and the interactions between doses and infective stage, as well as dose and species of experimental host, were all significant (Pvalue ≤ 0.05). This study suggests inoculation of the experimental host with cysts rather than trophozoites and administration of higher doses ofGiardiawill most likely result in cyst shedding. Based on the results of this meta-analysis, the infective stage (cyst versus trophozoite), parasite dose, and the interactions between dose and infective stage, as well as dose and species of experimental host, should be considered when designing experimental dose response studies that will assist in the study of zoonotic neglected tropical diseases globally.

SUMMARYCryptosporidiumis a zoonotic protozoan parasite with public health importance worldwide. The objectives of this study were to (1) conduct a meta-analysis of published literature for oocyst shedding and diarrhoea outcomes, and (2) develop recommendations for standardization of experimental dose–response studies. Results showed that for the outcome of oocyst shedding in faeces, the covariates ‘experimental species’, ‘immunosuppression’, ‘oocyst dose’ and ‘oocyst dose’ × ‘age’ were all significant (P ⩽ 0·05). This study suggests that exposing mice, piglets, or ruminants, and using immunosuppressed experimental hosts, is more likely to result in oocyst shedding. For the outcome of diarrhoea in experimentally infected animal species, the key covariates ‘experimental species’, ‘age’ and ‘immunosuppression’ were significant (P ⩽ 0·2). Therefore, based on the results of this meta-analysis, these variables should be carefully reported and considered when designing experimental dose–response studies. Additionally, detection of possible publication bias highlights the need to publish additional studies that convey statistically non-significant as well as significant results in the future.