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Sand flies are a significant public health concern in many parts of the world where they are known to transmit agents of several zoonotic diseases to humans, such as leishmaniasis. Vector control remains a key component of many anti-leishmaniasis programs and probably will remain so until an effective vaccine becomes available. The sand fly gut microbiota has recently emerged as an encouraging field for the exploration of vector-based disease control. In particular, the gut microbiome was previously reported to either enhance or inhibit parasite activity depending on the species of bacteria and, thus, has the potential to alter vector competence. Here, we describe the technological advances that are currently expanding our understanding of microbiota composition in sand flies. The acquisition and composition of microbiomes are influenced by several abiotic and biotic factors, including host immunity, genetics, and the environment. Therefore, the microbiomes of sand flies can vary substantially between individuals, life stages, species, and over geographical space, and this variation likely contributes to differences in host phenotypes, highlighting opportunities for novel vector control strategies.

Differences in the gut microbial content of Lutzomyia (Lu.) ayacuchensis, a primary vector of Andean-type cutaneous leishmaniasis in Ecuador and Peru, may influence the susceptibility of these sand flies to infection by Leishmania. As a first step toward addressing this hypothesis, a comparative analysis of bacterial and fungal compositions from Lu. ayacuchensis populations with differential susceptibilities to Leishmania was performed. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene amplification and Illumina MiSeq sequencing approaches were used to characterize the bacterial composition in wild-caught populations from the Andean areas of Ecuador and southern Peru at which the sand fly species transmit Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana and Leishmania (Viannia) peruviana, respectively, and a population from the northern Peruvian Andes at which the transmission of Leishmania by Lu. ayacuchensis has not been reported. In the present study, 59 genera were identified, 21 of which were widely identified and comprised more than 95% of all bacteria. Of the 21 dominant bacterial genera identified in the sand flies collected, 10 genera had never been detected in field sand flies. The Ecuador and southern Peru populations each comprised individuals of particular genera, while overlap was clearly observed between microbes isolated from different sites, such as the number of soil organisms. Similarly, Corynebacterium and Micrococcus were slightly more dominant bacterial genera in the southern Peru population, while Ochrobactrum was the most frequently isolated from other populations. On the other hand, fungi were only found in the southern Peru population and dominated by the Papiliotrema genus. These results suggest that variation in the insect gut microbiota may be elucidated by the ecological diversity of sand flies in Peru and Ecuador, which may influence susceptibility to Leishmania infection. The present study provides key insights for understanding the role of the microbiota during the course of L. (L.) mexicana and L. (V.) peruviana infections in this important vector.

Transcriptome analysis of the salivary gland cDNA library from a phlebotomine sand fly, Lutzomyia ayacuchensis, identified a transcript coding for the PpSP15/SL1 family protein as the second most abundant salivary component. In the present study, a recombinant protein of the PpSP15/SL1 family protein, designated ayaconin, was expressed in Escherichia coli, and its biological activity was characterized. The recombinant ayaconin purified from the soluble fraction of E. coli lysate efficiently inhibited the intrinsic but not extrinsic blood coagulation pathway. When the target of ayaconin was evaluated using fluorescent substrates of coagulation factors, ayaconin inhibited factor XIIa (FXIIa) activity more efficiently in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting that FXII is the primary target of ayaconin. In addition, incubation of ayaconin with FXII prior to activation effectively inhibited FXIIa activity, whereas such inhibition was not observed when ayaconin was mixed after the production of FXIIa, indicating that ayaconin inhibits the activation process of FXII to produce FXIIa, but not the enzymatic activity of FXIIa. Moreover, ayaconin was shown to bind to FXII, suggesting that the binding of ayaconin to FXII is involved in the inhibitory mechanism against FXII activation. These results suggest that ayaconin plays an important role in the blood-sucking of Lu. ayacuchensis.

Objective: To examine the effects of urbanization on the resistance status of field populations of Culex pipiens pipiens to organo- phosphate insecticide. Methods: Bioassays and biochemical assays were conducted on Tunisian field populations of Culex pipiens pipiens collected in four various areas differing in the degree of urbanization. Late third and early fourth larvae were used for bioassays with chlorpy- rifos and adults mosquitoes for biochemical assays including esterase and acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) activities. Results: The distribution of resistance ratios in this study appears to be influenced by the degree of urbanization. The highest resistance was recorded in the population from most urbanized areas in Tunisia whereas the lowest resistance was found in rel- atively natural areas. Both metabolic and target site mechanisms were involved in the recorded resistance. Conclusion: This is the first study in Tunisia showing evidence of the impact of urbanization on the resistance level in Culex pipiens pipiens. Proper management of the polluted breeding sites in the country and effective regulation of water bodies from commercial and domestic activities appear to be critical for managing insecticide resistance. Keywords: Culex pipiens pipiens, urbanization, organophosphate resistance.

Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of the mannose phosphate isomerase (mpi) gene was applied to 134 skin samples collected from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Peru for identification of the infecting parasite at the species level, and the results were compared with those of cytochrome b (cyt b) gene sequencing obtained in previous studies. Although most results (121/134) including 4 hybrids of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and L. (V.) peruviana corresponded to those obtained in the previous study, PCR-RFLP analyses revealed the distribution of putative hybrid strains between L. (V.) peruviana and L. (V.) lainsoni in two samples, which has never been reported. Moreover, parasite strains showing discordance between kinetoplast and nuclear genes (kDNA and nDNA), so-called mito-nuclear discordance, were identified in 11 samples. Of these, six strains had the kDNAs of L. (V.) braziliensis or L. (V.) peruviana and nDNAs of L. (V.) guyanensis, and three strains had the kDNAs of L. (V.) shawi and nDNAs of L. (V.) braziliensis. The rest were identified as mito-nuclear discordance strains having kDNAs of L. (V.) braziliensis or L. (V.) peruviana and nDNAs of L. (V.) lainsoni, and kDNAs of L. (V.) lainsoni and nDNAs of L. (V.) braziliensis. The results demonstrate that Leishmania strains in Peru are genetically more complex than previously considered., Author summary Protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania are able to undergo genetic exchange during their growth. The previous description of hybrids in Peru and the recent discovery of unexpected genetically complex strains having characteristics of both hybrid and mito-nuclear discordance in its neighbouring country (Ecuador) with a similar eco-epidemiological situation led us to consider that the genetic structure of Leishmania strains in Peru is more complicated than previously thought. In an effort to revise the data on Leishmania strain dispersion in Peru and to search for evidence of genetic recombination, the present study was conducted. A polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis targeting the mannose phosphate isomerase (mpi) gene sequence was performed to identify the infecting parasite at the species level in 134 skin samples collected from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Peru, and the results were compared with those of cytochrome b (cyt b) gene sequencing obtained in previous studies. Most results (121/134) including 4 hybrids between L. (V.) braziliensis and L. (V.) peruviana showed agreement between PCR-RFLP of the mpi gene and cyt b gene sequence analysis; however, 13 of 134 samples revealed the distribution of strains with hybrids and mito-nuclear discordance. The results demonstrate that genetically complex Leishmania strains are present in Peru. These findings indicate that Leishmania strain dispersion in Peru is genetically more complex than previously considered. Further prospective studies including larger samples and the isolation of parasite strains are required to update the available data.

Previous studies on Culex pipiens pipiens mosquitoes collected from Tunisia between 1990 and 1996 revealed an alarming resistance to organophosphate insecticides. However, since then very few studies have assessed the evolution of insecticides resistance in this species of mosquitoes. Three populations of Cx. pipiens pipiens mosquitoes were collected in three districts across the country between 2003 and 2005 and subjected to evaluation of their fenitrothion resistance/susceptibility status and associated mechanisms. Studied populations showed moderate resistance to the used insecticide which ranged from 7.59 to 11.8. The use of synergists revealed the lack of detoxification enzymes as metabolic resistance. However, starch gel electrophoresis indicated that resistance at the Ester locus was attributed to different Ester alleles. On the other hand, the positive cross-resistance to organophosphate fenitrothion and carbamate propoxur insecticides indicating a high prevalence of insensitive AChE1 mechanism in field populations. AChE activity showed that all populations exhibited a significant excess of heterozygotes ([RS]) compared to other detected genotypes ([SS] and [RR]) in the studied samples. Our analysis suggests that the heterozygotes often have a fitness advantage over the homozygotes.

Objectives: The aim of the present study was to determine the susceptibility status of Culex pipiens pipiens populations against deltamehtrin insecticide. Methods: Larvae of Culex pipiens pipiens were collected from three breeding places in Northern and Southern Tunisia between 2003 and 2005. Early third and late fourth instars were tested against deltamethrin pyrethroid insecticide. Cross-resistance with DDT resistance was evaluated in studied samples to estimate the role of target site insensitivity and two synergists including piperonyl butoxide (Pb) and S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF) were used to estimate the role of detoxification enzymes. Results: Our results revealed that the level of deltamehtrin resistance ranged from 0.67 to 31.4. We also showed the non-involvement of kdr resistance in pyrethroid resistance and no cross-resistance with DDT resistance was detected in all studied populations including the most resistant one. Synergists study on the resistant population (sample # 1) showed the involvement of CYP450 in the recorded resistance to the deltamethrin insecticide. Conclusion: The results obtained from this study should be considered in the current control programs to combat mosquitoes in Tunisia. Keywords: Culex pipiens pipiens , deltamethrin resistance, kdr mutation, detoxification, Tunisia.

In Tunisia, the epidemiological situation of leishmaniasis is characterized by the coexistence in a rather circumscribed territory (165000 km2, including the Sahara) of 4 forms of leishmaniasis caused by 3 species: Leishmania infantum, Leishmania major and Leishmania tropica (L. tropica) (synonymous Leishmania killicki). One of the factors determining the clinical, epidemiological and immunological diversity of leishmanioses is certainly the existence of a vector-parasite specificity of often sub-generic, sometimes even specific and even subspecific level. The aim of this paper was to review the current status of phlebotomine sand flies in Tunisia and their role on Leishmania transmission. The geographical distribution of Leishmania infantum in Tunisia is modeled on that of the vectors. Indeed, the species Phlebotomus perfiliewi, Phlebotomus perniciosus, Phlebotomus longicuspis and Phlebotomus langeroni were found exclusively in the northern and central Tunisia. The confirmed vector of Leishmania major is Phlebotomus papatasi. The vector of L. tropica was identified as Phlebotomus sergenti. L. tropica is classically an anthroponotic form; however, a zoonotic reservoir was identified in Tunisia.

Background: Mosquitoes are considered as the main groups of arthropods that cause nuisance and public health problems. Objectives: Evaluation of resistance to temephos insecticide in Culex pipiens pipiens larvae collected from three dis- tricts of Tunisia. Methods: Late third and early fourth instars larvae of Culex pipiens pipiens were collected in three localities of North- ern and Southern Tunisia. Field collected populations were tested against temephos insecticide and compared to bio- assays of a susceptible reference strain. The cross-resistance between temephos and propoxur, and the polymorphism of over-produced esterases and AChE 1 were investigated. Results: Studied populations exhibited tolerance to temephos with low and high levels of resistance. The resistance ratio (RR50) values of temephos ranged from 1.34 to 114. Synergists and starch electrophoresis showed that the met- abolic resistances were involved in the recorded resistance. Likewise, the resistant target site (acetyl cholinesterase: AChE 1) was responsible for the recorded resistance to temephos compound in Culex pipiens pipiens. Conclusion: The low and high resistance recorded to temephos insecticides is particularly interesting, because it leaves a range of tools useable by vector control services. However, further studies are needed to determine its spread and anticipate vector control failure where these insecticides are used. Keywords: Culex pipiens pipiens, temephos resistance, Tunisia.

Background: Cutaneous and visceral forms of leishmaniasis are the most important protozoan infection in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Objectives: Review the current knowledge on leishmaniasis in the MENA. Methods: The data presented in this review are gathered primarily from WHO reports and from an extensive literature search on PubMed. Results: There are four cycles of transmission of leishmaniasis: zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL), induce by Leishmania (L.) major, transmitted by Phlebotomus (P.) papatasi, with rodent species of Psammomys obesus, Meriones libycus, Nesokia indica, and Rhombomys opimus are considered as host reservoirs. Zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (ZVL) is inducing by L. infantum, transmitted by several Phlebotomus spp. of the sub-genus Larroussius and mainly P. perniciosus in more than one-half of the MENA countries and the dog species of Canis familiaris are considered as the main reservoirs. Anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL), induce by L. tropica and transmitted by P. sergenti, without any non-human reservoir in most cases. Anthroponotic visceral leish- maniasis (AVL) induces by L. donovani spreads through P. alexandri, circulates exclusively in humans. Conclusion: There are many challenges facing the successful control of leishmaniasis. However, there is continuing research into the treatment of leishmaniasis and potentially vaccinations for the disease. Keywords: Cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, global distribution, Middle East and North Africa.

To obtain further insight into geographic distribution of Leishmania species in Peru, a countrywide survey, including central to southern rainforest areas where information on causative parasite species is limited, was performed based on cytochrome b (cyt b) and mannose phosphate isomerase (mpi) gene analyses. A total of 262 clinical samples were collected from patients suspected of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in 28 provinces of 13 departments, of which 99 samples were impregnated on FTA (Flinders Technology Associates) cards and 163 samples were Giemsa-stained smears. Leishmania species were successfully identified in 83 (83.8%) of FTA-spotted samples and 59 (36.2%) of Giemsa-stained smear samples. Among the 142 samples identified, the most dominant species was Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis (47.2%), followed by L. (V.) peruviana (26.1%), and others were L. (V.) guyanensis, L. (V.) lainsoni, L. (V.) shawi, a hybrid of L. (V.) braziliensis and L. (V.) peruviana, and Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis. Besides the present epidemiological observations, the current study provided the following findings: 1) A hybrid of L. (V.) braziliensis and L. (V.) peruviana is present outside the Department of Huanuco, the only place reported, 2) Many cases of CL due to L. (V.) lainsoni, an uncommon causative species in Peru, were observed, and 3) L. (V.) shawi is widely circulating in southern Amazonian areas in Peru., Author summary Leishmaniasis, a neglected tropical disease (NTD) caused by the intracellular protozoa of the genus Leishmania, affects at least 12 million people in 96 countries. Peru is one of the most highly endemic countries for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), and our previous study identified Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis, L. (V.) peruviana, and L. (V.) guyanensis in the tropical rainforest, in the Andean highlands, and in the northern and central rainforest areas, respectively, as the main CL-causative agents. In addition, distribution of L. (V.) lainsoni, L. (V.) shawi, a hybrid of L. (V.) braziliensis and L. (V.) peruviana, and Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis has been identified. Of these, one case each of L. (V.) shawi infection was reported from the Departments of Junin and Madre de Dios, while clinical cases due to the hybrid of L. (V.) braziliensis and L. (V.) peruviana were recorded only in the Department of Huanuco. To further elucidate the current geographic distribution of causative Leishmania species in Peru, a countrywide survey, including central to southern rainforest areas where little information on causative parasites is available, was performed based on the cytochrome b (cyt b) gene sequence and PCR-RFLP analysis of the mannose phosphate isomerase (mpi) gene by using FTA (Flinders Technology Associates) card-spotted samples and smear slides as DNA sources. In addition to current epidemiological observations, the current study revealed that 1) A hybrid of L. (V.) braziliensis and L. (V.) peruviana was identified, for the first time, outside the Department of Huanuco, 2) L. (V.) lainsoni, an uncommon CL-causative species in Peru, was predominantly found in the Department of Puno, where causative Leishmania species are not well-studied, and 3) New endemic foci of L. (V.) shawi were identified in central to southern rainforest areas of Peru.

In recent years there has been growing interest in Sergentomyia species. Their role in the spread of mammalian leishmaniasis appears repeatedly in the literature and the possibility of its implication in Leishmania transmission to humans remains controversial. Sergentomyia (Sintonius) clydei is one of several cryptic species sharing therefore common morphologic criteria with others species of the subgenera Sintonius. Little is known about this specie in Tunisia. We sampled and identified different specimens including four specimens of S. clydei collected from Sidi Bouzid and Kairouan areas (center of Tunisia) using morphological tools. Male Sergentomyia clydei and Sergentomyia christophersi are known to share several morphological characters and can be mistaken for. Consequently we took advantage of 5 male S. christophersi available in our collection (Tataouin, South of Tunisia). In our study morphological tools were completed by molecular study of cytochrome b gene to identify S. clydei. For the detection of Leishmania spp. that might infect our specimens, Leishmania DNA was analyzed by amplification of kinetoplast minicircle DNA using real-time PCR and nested-PCR. Obtained result was confirmed by restriction analysis of the amplified ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1). We provide in our study, the first molecular identification of S. clydei, in Tunisia. Our Neighbor Joining tree based on mitochondrial cytochrome b gene shows two different clusters. The first includes the Tunisians S. clydei and other specimens from Africa, Middle East and the Arabic peninsula, and the second cluster containing the specimens from Seychelle. Unexpectedly, we also demonstrate the infection of one anthropophilic female S. clydei by Leishmania major DNA. This finding shows that more attention should be paid when identifying parasites by molecular tools within sandfly vector.

Salivary gland transcriptome analysis of the Asiatic Triatoma rubrofasciata was performed by high-throughput RNA sequencing. This analysis showed that the majority of reads accounting for 85.38% FPKM (fragments per kilobase of exon per million mapped fragments) were mapped with a secreted class. Of these, the most abundant subclass accounting for 89.27% FPKM was the lipocalin family. In the lipocalin family, the most dominant molecules making up 70.49% FPKM were homologues of procalin, a major allergen identified from T. protracta saliva, suggesting an important role in blood-sucking of T. rubrofasciata. Other lipocalins showed similarities to pallidipin and triplatin, inhibitors of collagen-induced platelet aggregation identified from T. pallidipennis and T. infestans, respectively, Td38 from T. dimidiata with unknown function, triatin-like lipocalin with unknown function, and triafestin, an inhibitor of the activation of the kallikrein-kinin system, identified from T. infestans saliva. Other than lipocalin family proteins, homologues of antigen-5 (3.38% FPKM), Kazal-type serine protease inhibitor (1.36% FPKM), inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (1.32% FPKM), and apyrase/5'-nucleotidase (0.64% FPKM) were identified as abundant molecules in T. rubrofasciata saliva. Through this study, de novo assembly of 42,580,822 trimmed reads generated 35,781 trinity transcripts, and a total of 1,272 coding sequences for the secreted class were deposited in GenBank. The results provide further insights into the evolution of salivary components in blood-sucking arthropods.

This article presents the status of Anopheles mosquito species and malaria parasite occurrences in North Africa. Because information is dispersed among numerous sources, we assimilated the information into a synthesis of the current status and potential of the disease in the region. Malaria transmission has been interrupted in North Africa, but the risk of re-emergence remains high. Indeed, competent vectors are present across the region, and the number of imported cases is increasing. The dominant parasite among imported cases is Plasmodium falciparum Welch in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco and Plasmodium vivax Grassi & Feletti in Libya and Egypt. In northwestern Africa (Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco), vectors formerly responsible for malaria transmission are Anopheles labranchiae Falleroni and Anopheles sergenti Theobald, whereas Anopheles pharoensis Theobald and Anopheles sergenti are the main malaria vectors in Egypt. Anopheles multicolor Cambouliu and An. sergenti are the major potential vectors of malaria transmission in Libya. In 2014, malaria caused by P. falciparum (1 case) and P. vivax (23 cases) were documented in Aswan Governorate, Egypt, indicating probable re-emergence of transmission, although these cases are considered as imported. In Algeria, local cases caused by P. falciparum in 2013 suggested probable re-emergence of malaria transmission. Four cases of airport malaria were noted for the first time in Tunisia during summer 2013 and were caused by P. falciparum. The presence of competent malaria vector species, together with high numbers of imported malaria cases each year, underscores the risk of re-emergence of autochthonous transmission in all countries of North Africa.

The transmission of Leishmania tropica (Wright) (Protozoa: Sarcomastigophora: Trypanosomatidae) was studied in a historic focus of the cutaneous leishmaniasis disease in southeast Tunisia....

Background: Culex pipiens pipiens is an important vector of human diseases. Objective: To determine the insecticide resistance development in Culex pipiens pipien s against selection pressure of temephos.. Methods: A field population of Culex pipiens pipiens was collected from Northwestern Tunisia with a medium level of temephos resistance (LC50 = 0.0069). It was subjected to six generations of temephos pressure selection to evaluate its relationship to cross-resistance towards organophosphates (OPs) and pyrethroids (PYR) insecticides. Results: The selection was initiated at the dose 0.0266, 0.0748 and 0.0069 which were increased during successive generations up to 0.1488, 3.8747 and 0.0086 after sixth generation for temephos, chlorpyrifos and permethrin insecticides, respectively. It is important to noted that high cross-resistance to chlorpyrifos insecticide (OP) was detected (51.88×). However, little or no cross-resistance to the pyrethroid permethrin (PYR) was recorded (1.24×). Contrary to metabolic resistance, it seemed that acetylcholinesterases AChE 1 was fixed under pressure selection. Conclusion: The high cross-resistance to temephos and chlorpyrifos is reasonable because they belong to the same class of insecticide (OP). However, the little cross-resistance to the pyrethroid permethrin could support its use alternately for Culex pipiens pipiens control. Keywords: Culex pipiens pipiens , temephos selection, Tunisia.

Background Insecticide resistance is an important threat to malaria control. Anopheles (An.) sergentii proved to be the number one vector in the oases and may be of a particular interest in projection of the future trends of the disease in Tunisia. Objectives Resistance status to pyrethroids insecticides in An. sergentii was evaluated for the first time in Tunisia. Methods Diagnostic resistance tests to pyrethroids insecticides were conducted on late third and early fourth larvae of An. sergentii collected in Southern Tunisia. Results The level of resistance to permethrin and deltamethrin varied from 1.9 to 5.77 and from 2.75 to 4.63, respectively. The highest resistance was recorded in sample # 3 to the two used insecticides. Synergists showed that esterases and glutathione-S-transferase were not involved in the resistance to any of the evaluated insecticides. In contrast, cytochrome-P450 monooxygenases played a role in the detoxification of two among three studied samples. Positive correlations between larval tolerance to both Permethrin/DDT and Deltamethrin/DDT were recorded indicated target site insensitivity. Conclusion Continued monitoring of insecticide susceptibility and generating complementary data on mechanisms of resistance using molecular and biochemical methods is essential to ensure early detection of insecticide resistance in potential malaria vectors in Tunisia.

Background: Despite the public health importance of Anopheles (An.) labranchiae , their resistance status to temephos insecticide has not, to our knowledge, been explored. Objectives: The present study was carried out to determine the temephos resistance status of field populations of An. labranchiae from Tunisia. Methods: Six field populations of An. labranchiae were collected as larvae from breeding sites of Northern and Central Tunisia. All the tests were carried out according to the WHO method. Results: Results reported that the majority of field populations showed low and medium resistance ratios (6.2

There is a specific association between insect vector species and parasites [1]. The susceptibility or resistance of a species of sandfly to the development of a particular parasite depends on its ability to overcome certain barriers such as the proteolytic enzymes of the midgut, the peritrophic membrane surrounding the blood meal, and excretion of the midgut contents during digestion [2].

A major public health problem, couple infertility represents a scientific, medical and financial challenge. However, the psychological impact of the whole procedure must not be neglected. At present, the study of the genetics of male infertility is upset by the analysis of polymorphisms. Thus, some polymorphisms or variant genes involved in the proper course of spermatogenesis are considered as potential risk factors that may contribute to the severity of spermatogenic defect. Majority of cases, the origin of the anomaly is not identified, many therapeutic means are available for infertile couples.

Following the bluetongue outbreaks in Tunisia from 1999 to 2006, bluetongue virus serotype 2 was isolated and several entomological investigations were performed. The present study reviewed the current status of Culicoides fauna in Tunisia and their role as proven and potential vectors of bluetongue virus based on the available and scattered reports. In total, about 35 species of Culicoides are known to occur in the country. Culicoides imicola is considered as the main and the proven vector of bluetongue virus. Other species of the genus Culicoides were suggested as potential vectors bluetongue virus. We cited mainly Culicoides obsoletus, Culicoides scoticus, Culicoides dewulfi and Culicoides pulicaris. Priority recommendations to prepare the country for future veterinary health challenges were suggested.