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Cosmos caudatus or Ulam Raja in Malay originated from Latin America and transferred to Europe, Africa, and tropical Asia. It has been known for many traditional practices worldwide such as to rigidify bones and tone up blood circulation. The aim of this review is to summarize and discuss the association between phytochemical and pharmacological reports of C. caudatus and their traditional uses via ethnopharmacological approaches. Cosmos caudatus is a traditional medicinal plant used widely for culinary and therapeutic purposes. Phytochemical studies indicated the presence of Phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, sesquiterpene lactones, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins in leaves while phenylpropanoids were in roots. Pharmacological data have been compiled for diverse activities for fresh leaves and extracts such as antihypertensive, antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiosteoporotic. These activities experimented by in vitro and in vivo studies. Multiple C. caudatus constituents propose many potential actions in different fields such as neuroprotection, antidepression, and gastroprotection.

Mefenamic acid (MEF) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) characterized by low bioavailability with relative high toxicity. Despite the efforts which have been paid to enhance its bioavailability, its inherent toxicity remains the limiting factor for its medical uses. Designing MFE as a prodrug of ester derivatives can attenuate gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity, but shows no advantages in term of therapeutic efficacy. Liposomes have a dual action and would be a promising tool to enhance MFE bioavailability and reduce its gastric and systemic adverse reactions. This review covers the pharmacological and toxicological aspects of MFE and provides substantial trend to enhance its clinical therapy.

Background: Clinacanthus nutans (C. nutans) Lindau (family Acanthaceae) is a shrub widely cultivated in the South East Asia region, including Malaysia. It has been traditionally used for treatment of various ailments including pain-mediated diseases. Various pharmacological activities of C. nutans have been reported except for its pain-relieving activity. This study was performed to evaluate the acute and sub-chronic oral toxicity of the methanol extract of Clinacanthus nutans (MECN) in male and female mice. Methods: In the acute toxicity study, a single dose of 5000 mg kg-1 of body weight MECN was administered orally, and was monitored for 14 consecutive days. In the sub-chronic toxicity study, the MECN was administered orally at doses of 50, 500, and 2500 mg kg-1 day-1 for 28 days. Results: Results showed that there were no clinical signs of toxicity, mortality and body weight changes in both acute and subchronic toxicity studies. There were no significant differences in relative organ weight, haematological parameters, and biochemical parameters; except for the creatinine level, which indicated significant (p<0.05) increase at doses of 500 and 2500 mg kg-1 day-1 for both sexes in the subchronic toxicity study. Necropsy, gross and histopathological observations, did not show any treatment-related signs of toxicity or abnormalities in both the acute and subchronic toxicity studies. Conclusion: In conclusion, the lethal oral dose (LD50) for the acute toxicity study is greater than 5000 mg kg-1 while for subchronic toxicity study; the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) is greater than 2500 mg kg-1 day-1.

A new pyranoxanthone, buxixanthone (1), was isolated from the stem bark of Calophyllum buxifolium along with three other chemical constituents, ananixanthone (2), pyranojacareubin (3), and macluraxanthone (4). The structures of these compounds were confirmed through spectroscopic analysis, which included 1D and 2D NMR, GC/MS, and IR experiments.

Human exposure to aflatoxin is through the diet, and probiotics are able to bind aflatoxin and prevent its absorption in the small intestine. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of a fermented milk drink containing Lactobacillus casei Shirota (LcS) (probiotic drink) to prevent aflatoxin absorption and reduce serum aflatoxin B1-lysine adduct (AFB1-lys) and urinary aflatoxin M1 concentrations. The present study was a randomised, double-blind, cross-over, placebo-controlled study with two 4-week intervention phases. In all, seventy-one subjects recruited from the screening stage were divided into two groups--the Yellow group and the Blue group. In the 1st phase, one group received probiotic drinks twice a day and the other group received placebo drinks. Blood and urine samples were collected at baseline, 2nd and 4th week of the intervention. After a 2-week wash-out period, the treatments were switched between the groups, and blood and urine samples were collected at the 6th, 8th and 10th week (2nd phase) of the intervention. No significant differences in aflatoxin biomarker concentrations were observed during the intervention. A within-group analysis was further carried out. Aflatoxin biomarker concentrations were not significantly different in the Yellow group. Nevertheless, ANOVA for repeated measurements indicated that AFB1-lys concentrations were significantly different (P=0·035) with the probiotic intervention in the Blue group. The 2nd week AFB1-lys concentrations (5·14 (SD 2·15) pg/mg albumin (ALB)) were significantly reduced (P=0·048) compared with the baseline (6·24 (SD 3·42) pg/mg ALB). Besides, the 4th week AFB1-lys concentrations were significantly lower (P<0·05) with probiotic supplementation than with the placebo. Based on these findings, a longer intervention study is warranted to investigate the effects of continuous LcS consumption to prevent dietary aflatoxin exposure.

Garcinia hombroniana has been used in Malay traditional medicine to treat various disorders such as abdominal pain and gonorrhea, and little is known about its toxicological properties. This study investigated the acute toxicological effects of the plant’s leaves aqueous extract using theoral acute toxic class (ATC) method. Twenty-four female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into T1, T2, T3 and control groups. The T1, T2 and T3 rats administered a single oral dose of 300, 2000 and 5000 mg/kg of G. hombroniana leaves aqueous extract, respectively. The animals were checked daily for abnormal clinical signs and mortality rate for 14 days. The body weight, daily food and water consumption were recorded. The haematological and biochemical parameters of blood as well as relative organ weight and tissues histology such as heart, kidney, liver and spleen were evaluated. Results have shown significantly decreased (p< 0.05) food and water consumption in T2 and T3 rats, which returned to normal after 72 hr post administration. No significant differences (p≥0.05) in the haematological and serum biochemical parameters in the treated rat groups, compared to the untreated control animals. An increase in the relative weight of spleen was noticed in T3 animals. Congestion of the splenic, hepatic, cardiac and renal tissues was seen in T2 and T3 rats. The oral LD50 was higher than 5000 mg/kg of body weight. Thus, it can be concluded that G. hombroniana aqueous extract shows little toxicity in the laboratory rats and the therapeutic potentials should be further investigated.

Background: Muntingia calabura L. (family Muntingiaceae), commonly known as Jamaican cherry or kerukup siam in Malaysia, is used traditionally to treat various ailments. The aim of this study is to elucidate the possible underlying gastroprotective mechanisms of ethyl acetate fraction (EAF) of Muntingia calabura methanolic leaves extract (MEMC). Methods: MEMC and its fractions were subjected to HPLC analysis to identify and quantify the presence of its phyto-constituents. The mechanism of gastroptotection of EAF was further investigated using pylorus ligation-induced gastric lesion rat model (100, 250, and 500 mg/kg). Macroscopic analysis of the stomach, evaluation of gastric content parameters such as volume, pH, free and total acidity, protein estimation, and quantification of mucus were carried out. The participation of nitric oxide (NO) and sulfhydryl (SH) compounds was evaluated and the superoxide dismutase (SOD), gluthathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and NO level in the ethanol induced stomach tissue homogenate was determined. Results: HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of quercetin and gallic acid in EAF. In pylorus-ligation model, EAF significantly (p <0.001) prevent gastric lesion formation. Volume of gastric content and total protein content reduced significantly (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, respectively), while free and total acidity reduced in the doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg (p <0.001 and p <0.05, respectively). EAF also augmented the mucus content significantly (p < 0.001). Pre-treatment with N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) or N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) reversed the gastroprotective activity of EAF. EAF treatment markedly ameliorated the SOD, GSH and CAT activity and PGE2 and NO level while attenuating MDA level, relative to the vehicle group. Conclusions: In conclusion, the underlying gastroprotective mechanisms of EAF could be associated with the antisecretory, participation of mucus, antiperoxidative, imp

Vascular endothelial cells emerge as a key regulator of vascular homeostasis. Disruption of vascular endothelial barrier leads to vascular hyperpermeability which in turn contributes to a broad spectrum of the most dreadful of human diseases, including heart diseases, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and cancer. The search for permeability-modulating agent still far lacking, thus, it is a need to search for a new agent to reduce endothelial hyperpermeability. Bixa orellana L. has been traditionally used to treat a number of ailments, including internal inflammation. Preliminary data showed that its leaves are able to suppress inflammation induced by carrageenan. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the anti-hyperpermebility effect of B. orellana leaf extract (AEBO) and elucidate its mechanism of action induced by histamine. The anti-hyperpermeability activity of the extract was evaluated using histamineinduced rat paw oedema, increased peritoneal vascular permeability, nitric oxide (NO) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) measurement in animal model, while, phospholipase C (PLC) – NO – cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signaling pathway was determined via in vitro. AEBO produced a significant inhibition of histamine-induced paw edema starting at 60 min time point, with maximal percentage of inhibition (60.25%) achieved with a dose of 150 mg/kg. Up to 90% of increased peritoneal vascular hyperpermeability successfully suppressed by AEBO. NO and VEGF from inflammed paw tissues was also found to be downregulated in the AEBO group. Histamine-induced increased endothelial permeability was significantly attenuated by pretreatment with AEBO in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, AEBO also suppressed PLC, calcium, NO and cGMP signaling cascade when endothelial cells were challenged with histamine. Protein kinase C activity was also significantly abolished by AEBO under histamine condition. In conclusion, the present data suggest that AEBO could s

Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that exhibits anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and antipyretic activities. Liposomes have been shown to improve the therapeutic efficacy of encapsulated drugs. The present study was conducted to compare the antinociceptive properties between liposome-encapsulated and free-form diclofenac in vivo via different nociceptive assay models. Liposome-encapsulated diclofenac was prepared using the commercialized proliposome method. Antinociceptive effects of liposome-encapsulated and free-form diclofenac were evaluated using formalin test, acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing test, Randall–Selitto paw pressure test, and plantar test. The results of the writhing test showed a significant reduction of abdominal constriction in all treatment groups in a dose-dependent manner. The 20 mg/kg liposome-encapsulated diclofenac demonstrated the highest antinociceptive effect at 78.97% compared with 55.89% in the free-form group at equivalent dosage. Both liposome-encapsulated and free-form diclofenac produced significant results in the late phase of formalin assay at a dose of 20 mg/kg, with antinociception percentages of 78.84% and 60.71%, respectively. Significant results of antinociception were also observed in both hyperalgesia assays. For Randall–Sellito assay, the highest antinociception effect of 71.38% was achieved with 20 mg/kg liposome-encapsulated diclofenac, while the lowest antinociceptive effect of 17.32% was recorded with 0 mg/kg liposome formulation, whereas in the plantar test, the highest antinociceptive effect was achieved at 56.7% with 20 mg/kg liposome-encapsulated diclofenac, and the lowest effect was shown with 0 mg/kg liposome formulation of 8.89%. The present study suggests that liposome-encapsulated diclofenac exhibits higher antinociceptive efficacy in a dose-dependent manner in comparison with free-form diclofenac.

Background: Histamine is established as a potent inflammatory mediator and it is known to increased endothelial permeability by promoting gap formation between endothelial cells. Previous studies have shown that aqueous extract of Bixa orellana leaves (AEBO) exhibits antihistamine activity in vivo, yet the mechanism of its action on endothelial barrier function remains unclear. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the protective effect of AEBO against histamine-induced hyperpermeability in vitro. Methods: The endothelial protective effect of AEBO was assess using an in vitro vascular permeability assay kit. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were used in the current study. HUVEC were pre-treated with AEBO for 12 h before histamine induction. Vascular permeability was evaluated by the amount of FITC-dextran leakage into the lower chamber. In order to elucidate the mechanism of action of AEBO, phospholipase C (PLC) activity, intracellular calcium level, nitric oxide (NO) concentration, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) production and protein kinase C (PKC) activity were determined following histamine challenge. Results: Histamine-induced increased HUVEC permeability was significantly attenuated by pretreatment with AEBO in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Upregulation of PLC activity caused by histamine in HUVEC was suppressed by pretreatment with AEBO. Pretreatment with AEBO also blocked the production of intracellular calcium induced by histamine in HUVEC. In addition, AEBO suppressed the NO-cGMP signaling cascade when HUVEC were challenged with histamine. Moreover, PKC activity was significantly abolished by pretreatment with AEBO in HUVEC under histamine condition. Conclusion: In conclusion, the present data suggest that AEBO could suppress histamine-induced increased endothelial permeability and the activity may be closely related with the inhibition of the PLC-NO-cGMP signaling pathway and PKC activity.

This current study investigated the anti-ulcer activity of 2 types of virgin coconut oil (VCO-A and VCO-B) and coconut oil (CO). Sprague-Dawley of male rats divided into 6 groups and each group consisted of ten rats. Rats were then treated with either VCO or CO and then were then anaesthetized and pyloric ligation was performed. The anaesthesia was discontinued and the animal usually recovered consciousness within less than an hour. Three hours later, the animal was then again anaesthetized and sacrificed with chloroform. Stomach removed and its content subjected to measurement of volume and pH. The results revealed VCO-B and VCO-A (100%) significantly inhibited (p < 0.001) the volume of gastric juice secreted by the control rats by 66.81% and 51.53%, respectively. Followed by CO 42.80%. While the inhibition of gastric juice for positive control rats which treated with ranitidine (100 mg/kg) was only 22.38%. The total acid output was reduced by the oils to 70.80%, 74.16% and 40.45% for VCO-A, VCO-B and CO respectively compared to control group. Ranitidine reduced the total acid output by 34.83%. In conclusion, prevention of gastric lesions in rats by VCO was found to increase the mucous and decrease the acid volume, total acid contents and ulcer scoring. The treatment of VCO affects the all parameters that influence the initiation and perpetuation of ulceration.

The anti-Trypanosoma evansi activity of Garcinia hombroniana (seashore mangosteen) leaves aqueous extract was tested on experimentally infected Sprague–Dawley rats. Treatment of infected rats with G. hombroniana extract resulted in a significantly extended post-infection longevity (p < 0.05), compared to the untreated control group. The possible mode of antitrypanosomal effect of the plant extract was also investigated on cultured T. evansi in HMI-9 medium with the addition of 25 µg/ml G. hombroniana aqueous extract. It was observed that the addition of G. hombroniana extract resulted in the inhibition of trypanosomal kinetoplast division, with no significant inhibitory effect on nuclear division. It is concluded from the current study that the aqueous extract of G. hombroniana has a potential antitrypanosomal activity through the inhibition of kinetoplast division, as one of the possible mechanisms of its antitrypanosomal effect. This plant could serve as a possible source of new antitrypanosomal compounds.

BACKGROUND:Obesity and overweight are major public health problems. Various factors, such as daily nutritional habits, physical inactivity, and genetic, are related to the prevalence of obesity. Recently, it was revealed that the gut microflora may also play an important role in weight management. Thus, this study aimed to determine the anti-obesity effects of Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (LcS) compared with those of orlistat in an animal model fed a high-fat diet (HFD). DESIGN:Thirty-two male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to four groups fed various diets as follows: a standard diet group, HFD group, HFD supplemented with LcS (108109 colony-forming units (HFD-LcS) group, and HFD group treated with Orlistat (10 mg/kg body weight)). After 15 weeks, the weights of organs, body weight, body fat mass and serological biomarkers were measured. In addition, histological analysis of the liver and adipose tissue was performed. RESULTS:Body weight, body mass index, fat mass, leptin and glucose levels were lower, and high-density lipoprotein and adiponectin levels were higher in the HFD-LcS and HFD-orlistat groups than in the HFD group. In addition a significant difference in body fat mass was observed between HFD-LcS group with HFD-orlistat group (19.19±5.76 g vs. 30.19±7.98 g). Although the interleukin-6 level was significantly decreased in the HFD-LcS and HFD-orlistat groups compared with the HFD group, no significant change was observed in other inflammatory biomarkers. CONCLUSION:The results of the present study show that LcS supplementation improves body weight management and the levels of some related biomarkers. In addition, LcS supplementation showed a better result in fat mass and alanine aminotransferase reduction than Orlistat. Further studies are needed to elucidate the anti-obesity effects of LcS, with a longer period of supplementation.

Probiotics are live microorganisms that exert beneficial effects on the host, when administered in adequate amounts. Mostly, probiotics affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of the host and alter the composition of gut microbiota. Nowadays, the incidence of hip fractures due to osteoporosis is increasing worldwide. Ovariectomized (OVX) rats have fragile bone due to estrogen deficiency and mimic the menopausal conditions in women. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of Bifidobacterium longum (B. longum) on bone mass density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), bone remodeling, bone structure, and gene expression in OVX rats. The rats were randomly assigned into 3 groups (sham, OVX, and the OVX group supplemented with 1 mL of B. longum 108–109 colony forming units (CFU)/mL). B. longum was given once daily for 16 weeks, starting from 2 weeks after the surgery. The B. longum supplementation increased (p < 0.05) serum osteocalcin (OC) and osteoblasts, bone formation parameters, and decreased serum C-terminal telopeptide (CTX) and osteoclasts, bone resorption parameters. It also altered the microstructure of the femur. Consequently, it increased BMD by increasing (p < 0.05) the expression of Sparc and Bmp-2 genes. B. longum alleviated bone loss in OVX rats and enhanced BMD by decreasing bone resorption and increasing bone formation.

Aflatoxin is ubiquitously found in many foodstuffs and produced by Aspergillus species of fungi. Of many aflatoxin metabolites, AFB1 is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as group one carcinogen and linked to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The study on molecular biomarker of aflatoxin provides a better assessment on the extent of human exposure to aflatoxin. In Malaysia, the occurrences of aflatoxin-contaminated foods have been documented, but there is a lack of data on human exposure to aflatoxin. Hence, this study investigated the occurrence of AFB1-lysine adduct in serum samples and its association with liver and kidney functions. 5 ml fasting blood samples were collected from seventy-one subjects (n = 71) for the measurement of AFB1-lysine adduct, albumin, total bilirubin, AST (aspartate aminotransferase), ALT (alanine transaminase), ALP (alkaline phosphatase), GGT (gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase), creatinine and BUN (blood urea nitrogen). The AFB1-lysine adduct was detected in all serum samples (100% detection rate) with a mean of 6.85 ± 3.20 pg/mg albumin (range: 1.13–18.85 pg/mg albumin). Male subjects (mean: 8.03 ± 3.41 pg/mg albumin) had significantly higher adduct levels than female subjects (mean: 5.64 ± 2.46 pg/mg albumin) (p < 0.01). It was noteworthy that subjects with adduct levels greater than average (>6.85 pg/mg albumin) had significantly elevated level of total bilirubin (p < 0.01), GGT (p < 0.05) and creatinine (p < 0.01). Nevertheless, only the level of total bilirubin, (r = 0.347, p-value = 0.003) and creatinine (r = 0.318, p-value = 0.007) showed significant and positive correlation with the level of AFB1-lysine adduct. This study provides a valuable insight on human exposure to aflatoxin in Malaysia. Given that aflatoxin can pose serious problem to the health, intervention strategies should be implemented to limit/reduce human exposure to aflatoxin. Besides, a study with a big sample size s

To describe six cases of glucose management in diabetic and pre-diabetic patients with Diabegard® supplementation. We report the clinical courses of six individuals taking Diabegard® supplementation at 60 and 120 mg/day for 8 weeks. Patients had a maximum of 50% reduction in fasting blood glucose with 42% reduction in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c). Patients also had improved kidney functions (expressed by normal level of blood urea nitrogen, creatinine and urine microalbumin). In some patients, these three parameters were elevated prior to supplementation. These results suggest that supplementation of Diabegard® will improve patients' glucose management and with reduction of elevated blood glucose level, kidney functions will also improve. However, patients taking this supplementation are advised to seek medical consultation in monitoring their blood sugar levels.

Context: Muntingia calabura L. (Muntingiaceae) is a native plant species of the American continent and is widely cultivated in warm areas in Asia, including Malaysia. The plant is traditionally used to relieve pain from gastric ulcers. Objective: This study was designed to determine the antiulcer activity of a methanol extract of M. calabura leaves (MEMC) and the possible mechanisms of action involved. Materials and methods: An acute toxicity study was conducted using a single oral dose of 2000 mg/kg MEMC. The antiulcer activity of MEMC was evaluated in absolute ethanol- and indomethacin-induced gastric ulcer rat models. MEMC was administered orally (dose range 25–500 mg/kg) to rats fasted for 24 h. The animals were pretreated with NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl esters (l-NAME) or N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) prior to MEMC treatment to assess the possible involvement of endogenous nitric oxide (NO) and nonprotein sulfhydryl (NP-SH) compounds in the gastroprotective effect of MEMC. Results: As the administered dose did not cause toxicity in the rats, the oral median lethal dose (LD50) of MEMC was >2000 mg/kg in rats. MEMC exerted significant (p < 0.001) gastroprotective activity in the ethanol- and indomethacin-induced ulcer models dose-dependently. Histological evaluation supported the observed antiulcer activity of MEMC. l-NAME and NEM pretreatment significantly (p < 0.05) reversed and abolished the gastroprotective effect of MEMC, respectively. Discussion and conclusion: The results obtained indicate that MEMC has significant antiulcer activity that might involve the participation of endogenous NO and NP-SH compounds. These findings provide new pharmacological information regarding the potential use of M. calabura.

Purpose: To assess six patients with Diabegard® supplementation with reference to cholesterol profiles. Methods: We report the clinical courses of six individuals taking Diabegard® supplementation at 60 and 120 mg/day for 8 weeks. Results: Patients had a maximum of 52.13 % reduction in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, 47.67 % reduction in triglycerides and 35.78 % reduction in total cholesterol (TC) within 8 weeks of Diabegard® supplementation. Interestingly, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol increased by approximately 23.29 %. Patients also had reduced readings for C-reactive protein (CRP) and homocysteine (with maximum reduction of 81.58 % and 57.41 % respectively). In some patients, these parameters were elevated prior to supplementation. Conclusion: These results suggest that supplementation of Diabegard® will improve patients’ cholesterol profile by reduction of LDL and TC. Patients also expressed lower CRP and homocysteine indicating reduced inflammation and reduction of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) risk. However, patients taking this supplementation are advised to seek medical consultation in monitoring their cholesterol and other biochemical profile levels.

Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of “surra”, infects many species of wild and domestic animals worldwide. In the current study, the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of six medicinal plants, namely, Aquilaria malaccensis, Derris elliptica, Garcinia hombroniana, Goniothalamus umbrosus, Nigella sativa, and Strobilanthes crispus were screened in vitro for activity against T. evansi. The cytotoxic activity of the extracts was evaluated on green monkey kidney (Vero) cells using MTT-cell proliferation assay. The median inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of the extracts ranged between 2.30 and 800.97 µg/ml and the median cytotoxic concentrations (CC50) ranged between 29.10 µg/ml and 14.53 mg/ml. The aqueous extract of G. hombroniana exhibited the highest selectivity index (SI) value of 616.36, followed by A. malaccensis aqueous extract (47.38). Phytochemical screening of the G. hombroniana aqueous extract revealed the presence of flavonoids, phenols, tannins, and saponins. It is demonstrated here that the aqueous extract of G. hombroniana has potential antitrypanosomal activity with a high SI, and may be considered as a potential source for the development of new antitrypanosomal compounds.

Spirulina spp. is a blue-green algae belongs to the family of Oscillatoriaceae, which having diverse biological activity. The aim of this current study was to evaluate and compare the anti-pyretic and anti-inflammatory activity of Spirulina platensis/SP and Spirulina lonar/SL extracts. In the anti-pyretic study, the ability to reduce the rectal temperature of rats induced pyrexia with 2g/kg Brewer’s Yeast (BY) was performed. Rats were dosed either 2 or 4 mg/kg SP or SL. Rectal temperature was taken every hour for 8 hours. Results shown that there were significant dosedependent (p<0.05) reduction of both treatments. However, SP treatment revealed faster reduction in rectal temperature. For anti inflammatory activity, the reduction in the volume of paw edema induced by Prostaglandin E2 (100 IU/rat intraplantar) was measured. Rats were dosed orally with 2 or 4 mg/kg SP or SL. The paw edema was measured every 30 minutes for 4 hours using plethysmometer. Results had shown a significant dose dependent reduction in diameter of paw edema (p<0.05). The finding suggests that SP and SL extracts have anti-pyretic and anti inflammatory properties. However, SP was found to be more effective than SL as anti-pyretic and anti-inflammatory agent.

The cytotoxic structure-activity relationships among a series of xanthone derivatives from Mesua beccariana, Mesua ferrea and Mesua congestiflora were studied. Eleven xanthone derivatives identified as mesuarianone (1), mesuasinone (2), mesuaferrin A (3), mesuaferrin B (4), mesuaferrin C (5), 6-deoxyjacareubin (6), caloxanthone C (7), macluraxanthone (8), 1,5-dihydroxyxanthone (9), tovopyrifolin C (10) and α-mangostin (11) were isolated from the three Mesua species. The human cancer cell lines tested were Raji, SNU-1, K562, LS-174T, SK-MEL-28, IMR-32, HeLa, Hep G2 and NCI-H23. Mesuaferrin A (3), macluraxanthone (8) and α-mangostin (11) showed strong cytotoxicities as they possess significant inhibitory effects against all the cell lines. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) study revealed that the diprenyl, dipyrano and prenylated pyrano substituent groups of the xanthone derivatives contributed towards the cytotoxicities.