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Children generally have a high acceptance for sweetness, but differ in their preferences for the intensity of the taste. This study investigates how food exposure, parental attitudes and behaviours, and children’s taste sensitivity are associated with five-year olds’ preferences for sweetness. Preference data were collected from 135 children at ages four (Mean age: 46.3 months, SD: 3.4, 56% boys) and five years old (Mean age: 57.5 months, SD: 3.3; 58% boys) in a ranking by elimination procedure in the springs of 2015 and 2016. The taste carriers were fruit-flavoured beverages and dark chocolate, both with three levels of sugar content. Quantitative descriptive analysis testified three distinct levels of sweetness in each sample triad. The same children were also tested for sweetness and bitterness taste sensitivity in a paired comparison procedure. The protocols did not require the children to respond verbally, and included elements of gamification in order to engage the children. In addition, a parental questionnaire enquired about exposure to different foods, parental food attitudes and behaviours as well as socio-demographic characteristics. Path modelling using PLS-SEM indicated that differences in children’s preference for sweetness could be explained by differences in exposure to foods, including more frequent exposure to sweet foods and snacks associated with a higher sweet preference. More frequent exposure to fruit and bitter snacks, were associated with a lower sweet preference for the drink and chocolate, respectively. Parental attitudes and behaviours as well as children’s sensitivity to sweetness and bitterness were significantly associated with what foods the children were frequently exposed to, and to their sweetness preferences in beverages and chocolate. Do parents form their children’s sweet preference? The role of parents and taste sensitivity on preferences for sweetness in pre-schoolers

Surveys are based on predetermined questions (PDQs), used in hypothesis testing. To validate surveys, an open-ended question (OEQs), probing for additional factors, is sometimes added. This approach could become more efficient by combining PDQs with OEQs in hybrid surveys. This study surveyed Japanese consumers on seafood quality (n = 200). It started with three OEQs, asking participants to list the most important factors when evaluating packed mackerel fillets, before they assessed 26 PDQs on importance of different quality dimensions for the same products. The OEQs were grouped based on the PDQs and the answers were counted. The PDQs were rated on 7-point importance scales. The real-life relevance of PDQs was challenged based on the frequency counts of OEQs. The result revealed that the color, overall freshness, and price issues are the most important factors consumers consider in real life. The use of hybrid surveys led to increased validity of this study.

Rye breads, especially those with a chewy texture and sour flavor, have shown several health benefits but their consumption is lower among younger consumers than older. This study explores liking of commercial rye bread in younger and older consumers in relation to socio-demographics, childhood bread-eating habits and food choice motives. Further, sensory attributes are explored in relation to the consumers’ concepts of a rye bread and healthiness in bread. Nine commercial rye breads, previously profiled by descriptive sensory analysis were tasted by 225 younger (18–44 years) and 173 older (45–80 years) consumers. Internal preference mappings by principal component regression for each age group showed low liking for rye bread with a chewy texture and sour flavor in the younger consumer group. Based on the preference mappings, the age groups were separately clustered. Associations between clusters and background variables were studied using discriminant partial least squares regression. Liking of rye bread with a chewy texture and sour flavor in the younger consumer group was associated with e.g., more education, females, childhood bread consumption and the food choice motive health . In the older consumer group, it was related to e.g., more education and childhood bread consumption. Partial least squares regression 1 showed that the combination of sensory attributes such as a light color and soft texture led to the perception of bread being less healthy and not a rye bread, and a dark brown color, chewy texture, sour and bitter flavor to the perception of a healthier bread and rye bread .

Discoloration of sliced packaged salami is contributing to rejection of the product, food waste and economical loss. A combination of residual O2 in the headspace of packages and light is causing photooxidation and deterioration of colour. The aim of this study was to establish maximum tolerable concentrations of residual O2 in packages of salami slices with 100% N2 under light display at 4 and 20 °C. Salami sausages had variable inherent O2 consumption rate. Storage of salami in 1% O2 in darkness did not induce discoloration. The upper limits for O2 for avoiding discoloration under light were variable in the range 0.1–1.0%, depending on temperature and type of salami. Display at 20 °C increased the rate of O2 depletion compared to 4 °C. To minimize discoloration, sliced and packaged salami should be stored in darkness at approximately 20 °C until the level of residual O2 is reduced below a critical limit.

The aim of the present work was to develop and evaluate near-infrared (NIR) and fluorescence spectroscopies as rapid and potential online methods for determination of the amount of aleurone in pearling dust fractions of barley. Phytic acid was used as a marker for the aleurone layer. Different varieties of barley were pearled, and dust fractions were progressively taken out. Sample concentration of phytic acid varied in the range of 0.5-4.1 g/100 g, and highest concentrations were obtained in dust fractions for pearling degrees in the range of 15-25%. Regression models for phytic acid were developed with the same high correlations for NIR and fluorescence spectroscopies (R2 = 0.96) and prediction errors of ±0.16-0.18 g/100 g. The models performed well on a test set of pearling fractions from two other barley varieties. The techniques are rapid and nondestructive, which means that they can be used online in connection with industrial pearling systems.

Agar-based extracts from Gelidium sesquipedale were generated by heat and combined heat-sonication, with and without the application of alkali pre-treatment. Pre-treatment yielded extracts with greater agar contents; however, it produced partial degradation of the agar, reducing its molecular weight. Sonication produced extracts with lower agar contents and decreased molecular weights. A gelation mechanism is proposed based on the rheological and small angle scattering characterization of the extracts. The formation of strong hydrogels upon cooling was caused by the association of agarose chains into double helices and bundles, the sizes of which depended on the agar purity and molecular weight. These different arrangements at the molecular scale consequently affected the mechanical performance of the obtained hydrogels. Heating of the hydrogels produced a gradual disruption of the bundles; weaker or smaller bundles were formed upon subsequent cooling, suggesting that the process was not completely reversible., Synchrotron experiments were performed at NCD beamline at ALBA Synchrotron with the collaboration of ALBA staff (2018022638 project). This work was financially supported by the “Agencia Estatal de Investigación” (PCI2018-092886 Grant) and co-funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (ERA-Net SUSFOOD2). Part of this work was supported by the COST Action ES1408 European network for algal-bioproducts (EUALGAE).

Nest building is important in sow preparation for motherhood. However, straw or other bulky materials can block drains, and a finer-grained material such as peat is of interest as an alternative. The main aim of this study was to evaluate effects of different nesting materials on maternal behaviour during farrowing and early lactation. Norsvin Landrace x Swedish Yorkshire sows (n = 54) were loose-housed in individual farrowing pens with wood-shavings as litter. Mean (± SE) parity was 2.9 ± 2.0 (range 1–9), and 16 were primiparous. They were provided with peat (n = 18) or straw (n = 17) as nesting material from two days before expected farrowing until they farrowed, or received wood shavings litter only (controls, n = 18). From video recordings positive (i.e. sniffing, grunting, nudging) and negative (i.e. pushing, threatening barks, biting) communicatory behaviours from sow to piglets during farrowing (≤4 h) and on Day 1 post-partum (4 h) were registered by one-zero sampling at 1-min intervals. Nursing behaviour on Day 2 post-partum (6 h) was registered by continuous observation. During farrowing, sows provided with straw or peat as nesting material showed a lower frequency of negative communication towards piglets compared to controls (P

International audience; Oat b-glucan has been shown to play a positive role in influencing lipid and cholesterol metabolism. However, the mechanisms behind these beneficial effects are not fully understood. The purpose of the current work was to investigate some of the possible mechanisms behind the cholesterol lowering effect of oat b-glucan, and how processing of oat modulates lipolysis. b-Glucan release, and the rate and extent of lipolysis measured in the presence of different sources of oat b-glucan, were investigated during gastrointestinal digestion. Only a fraction of the original b-glucan content was released during digestion. Oat flakes and flour appeared to have a more significant effect on lipolysis than purified b-glucan. These findings show that the positive action of b-glucan is likely to involve complex processes and interactions with the food matrix. This work also highlights the importance of considering the structure and physicochemical properties of foods, and not just the nutrient content.

The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which oat particle size in a porridge could alter glucose absorption, gastric emptying, gastrointestinal hormone response, and subjective feelings of appetite and satiety. Porridge was prepared from either oat flakes or oat flour with the same protein, fat, carbohydrate, and mass. These were fed to eight volunteers on separate days in a crossover study, and subjective appetite ratings, gastric contents, and plasma glucose, insulin, and gastrointestinal hormones were determined over a period of 3 h. The flake porridge gave a lower glucose response than the flour porridge, and there were apparent differences in gastric emptying in both the early and late postprandial phases. The appetite ratings showed similar differences between early- and late-phase behavior. The structure of the oat flakes remained sufficiently intact to delay their gastric emptying, leading to a lower glycemic response, even though initial gastric emptying rates were similar for the flake and flour porridge. This highlights the need to take food structure into account when considering relatively simple physiological measures and offering nutritional guidance.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The impact of food structure on glycemic response even in simple foods such as porridge is dependent on both timing of gastric emptying and the composition of what is emptied as well as duodenal starch digestion. Thus structure should be accounted for when considering relatively simple physiological measures and offering nutritional guidance.

Large volumes of protein-rich residual raw materials, such as heads, bones, carcasses, blood, skin, viscera, hooves and feathers, are created as a result of processing of animals from fisheries, aquaculture, livestock and poultry sectors. These residuals contain proteins and other essential nutrients with potentially bioactive properties, eligible for recycling and upgrading for higher-value products, e.g. for human, pet food and feed purposes. Here, we aim to cover all the important aspects of achieving optimal utilization of proteins in such residual raw materials, identifying those eligible for human consumption as co-products and for feed applications as by-products. Strict legislation regulates the utilization of various animal-based co- and by-products, representing a major hurdle if not addressed properly. Thorough understanding and optimization of all parts of the production chain, including conservation and processing, are important prerequisites for successful upgrading and industrial implementation of such products. This review includes industrially applied technologies such as freezing/cooling, acid preservation, salting, rendering and protein hydrolysis. In this regard, it is important to achieve stable production and quality through all the steps in the manufacturing chain, preferably supported by at- or online quality control points in the actual processing step. If aiming for the human market, knowledge of consumer trends and awareness are important for production and successful introduction of new products and ingredients.

Oat mixed-linkage b-glucan has been shown to lower fasting blood cholesterol concentrations due notably to an increase in digesta viscosity in the proximal gut. To exert its action, the polysaccharide has to be released from the food matrix and hydrated. The dissolution kinetics of b-glucan from Three oat materials, varying in their structure, composition and degree of processing, was investigated by incubating the oats at 37◦C over multiple time points (up to 72 h). The samples were analysed for b-glucan content, weight-average molecular weight and rheological behaviour. Regardless of the materials studied and the processing applied, the solubilisation of b-glucan was not complete. Mechanical and hydrothermal processing led to differences in the viscosity flow curves of the recovered solutions, With the presence of particulates having a marked effect. This study revealed that the structure and processing methods applied to oat materials resulted in varied and complex rheological properties, especially when particulates are present.

Domestic sows are still highly motivated to build a nest before farrowing. Many pig houses have slurry systems that do not allow use of long straw or other bulky materials that could block the drains, which provides an incentive to investigate the functionality of finer-grained materials for nest building. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of providing peat or straw on the overall amount of nest-building behaviour, number of different behavioural elements performed during nest building, and behavioural time budget of sows in the nesting period before farrowing. Fifty-four hybrid sows (Norwegian Landrace x Yorkshire) ranging in parity from 1 to 9 (mean ± S.E., 2.9 ± 2.0), of which 16 were gilts, were loose-housed in individual farrowing pens. From two days before expected farrowing until farrowing the sows received nest-building material, with refills if necessary: peat (4 kg, 2 kg refills, n = 18), straw (2 kg, 1 kg refills, n = 17), or served as controls (n = 16). Behaviour in the last 12 h before onset of farrowing was instantaneously scan sampled at 5-min intervals from video recordings of each sow. Sows provided with straw or peat engaged in nest-building behaviour in a higher proportion of scans compared to the sows in the control group (P < 0.001), and the sows in the straw group displayed the highest number of nest-building elements (P < 0.001). Sows in the straw group also lied more (P < 0.001) and performed less stereotypic behaviour (P < 0.001) than sows in the other two groups. Overall, total nest-building behaviour increased to a peak at 6–4 h before farrowing and declined in the final three hours (P < 0.001). The number of different nest-building elements followed the same pattern (P = 0.032). Sows of parity ≥4 (n = 16) exhibited more nest-building behaviour compared to gilts and sows of parity 2–3 (P < 0.001). Our results demonstrate that both straw and peat stimulated more nest building compared to the control condition. However, straw elicited more complex nest-building behaviour, increased lying time and reduced time spent on stereotypies in the 12 h before farrowing, suggesting that straw has a better function as nest-building material than peat. Nest-building behaviour and activity budgets of sows provided with different materials

Consumers in industrialized countries are nowadays much more interested in information about the production methods and components of the food products that they eat, than they had been 50 years ago. Some production methods are perceived as less “natural” (i.e. conventional agriculture) while some food components are seen as “unhealthy” and “unfamiliar” (i.e. artificial additives). This phenomenon, often referred to as the “clean label” trend, has driven the food industry to communicate whether a certain ingredient or additive is not present or if the food has been produced using a more “natural” production method (i.e. organic agriculture). However, so far there is no common and objective definition of clean label. This review paper aims to fill the gap via three main objectives, which are to a) develop and suggest a definition that integrates various understandings of clean label into one single definition, b) identify the factors that drive consumers' choices through a review of recent studies on consumer perception of various food categories understood as clean label with the focus on organic, natural and ‘free from’ artificial additives/ingredients food products and c) discuss implications of the consumer demand for clean label food products for food manufacturers as well as policy makers. We suggest to define clean label, both in a broad sense, where consumers evaluate the cleanliness of product by assumption and through inference looking at the front-of-pack label and in a strict sense, where consumers evaluate the cleanliness of product by inspection and through inference looking at the back-of-pack label. Results show that while ‘health’ is a major consumer motive, a broad diversity of drivers influence the clean label trend with particular relevance of intrinsic or extrinsic product characteristics and socio-cultural factors. However, ‘free from’ artificial additives/ingredients food products tend to differ from organic and natural products. Food manufacturers should take the diversity of these drivers into account in developing new products and communication about the latter. For policy makers, it is important to work towards a more homogenous understanding and application of the term of clean label and identify a uniform definition or regulation for ‘free from’ artificial additives/ingredients food products, as well as work towards decreasing consumer misconceptions. Finally, multiple future research avenues are discussed.

The breadmaking quality of wheat is affected by the composition of gluten proteins and the polymerisation of subunits that are synthesised and accumulated in developing wheat grain. The biological mechanisms and time course of these events during grain development are documented, but not widely confirmed. Therefore, the aim of this study was to monitor the accumulation of gluten protein subunits and the size distribution of protein aggregates during grain development. The effect of desiccation on the polymerisation of gluten proteins and the functional properties of gluten were also studied. The results showed that the size of glutenin polymers remained consistently low until yellow ripeness (YR), while it increased during grain desiccation after YR. Hence, this polymerisation process was presumed to be initiated by desiccation. A similar polymerisation event was also observed when premature grains were dried artificially. The composition of gluten proteins, the ratios of glutenin to gliadin and high molecular weight-glutenin subunits to low molecular weight-glutenin subunits, in premature grain after artificial desiccation showed close association with the size of glutenin polymers in artificially dried grain. Functional properties of gluten in these samples were also associated with polymer size after artificial desiccation.

Multi-way data arrays are becoming more common in several fields of science. For instance, analytical instruments can sometimes collect signals at different modes simultaneously, as e.g. fluorescence and LC/GC-MS. Higher order data can also arise from sensory science, were product scores can be reported as function of sample, judge and attribute. Another example is process monitoring, where several process variables can be measured over time for several batches. In addition, so-called multi-block data sets where several blocks of data explain the same set of samples are becoming more common. Several methods exist for analyzing either multi-way or multi-block data, but there has been little attention on methods that combine these two data properties. A common procedure is to “unfold” multi-way arrays in order to obtain two-way data tables on which classical multi-block methods can be applied. However, it is a known fact that unfolding can lead to overfitted models due to increased flexibility in parameter estimation. In this paper we present a novel multi-block regression method that can handle multi-way data blocks. This method is a combination of a multi-block method called Sequential and Orthogonalized-PLS (SO-PLS) and the multi-way version of PLS, N-PLS. The new method is therefore called SO-N-PLS. We have compared the method to Multi-block-PLS (MB-PLS) and SO-PLS on unfolded data. We investigate the hypotheses that SO-N-PLS has better performances on small data sets and noisy data, and that SO-N-PLS models are easier to interpret. The hypotheses are investigated by a simulation study and two real data examples; one dealing with regression and one with classification. The simulation study show that SO-N-PLS predicts better than the unfolded methods when the sample size is small and the data is noisy. This is due to the fact that it filters out the noise better than MB-PLS and SO-PLS. For the real data examples, the differences in prediction are small but the multi-way method allows easier interpretation.

Specialized agricultural production between regions has led to large regional differences in soil phosphorus (P) over time. Redistribution of surplus manure P from high livestock density regions to regions with arable farming can improve agricultural P use efficiency. In this paper, the central research question was whether more efficient P use through manure P redistribution comes at a price of increased environmental impacts when compared to a reference system. Secondly, we wanted to explore the influence on impacts of regions with different characteristics. For this purpose, a life cycle assessment was performed and two regions in Norway were used as a case study. Several technology options for redistribution were examined in a set of scenarios, including solid–liquid separation, with and without anaerobic digestion of manure before separation. The most promising scenario in terms of environmental impacts was anaerobic digestion with subsequent decanter centrifuge separation of the digestate. This scenario showed that redistribution can be done with net environmental impacts being similar to or lower than the reference situation, including transport. The findings emphasize the need to use explicit regional characteristics of the donor and recipient regions to study the impacts of geographical redistribution of surplus P in organic fertilizer residues. ©2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open accessarticle distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Sensory evaluation has traditionally been divided into two clearly defined areas: analytical tests, aimed at objectively evaluating the sensory characteristics of products, and hedonic tests, in which consumers evaluate their acceptance/preference. One of the central dogmas of the field has been matching these two types of tests to different types of assessors respectively: selected and trained assessors and regular consumers of the target products. For years, consumers have been regarded as not capable of performing analytical tasks. However, the development of various alternative methods for sensory characterization in the last couple of decades has agitated the debate about the use of untrained assessors for analytical tasks in sensory science. Lately, the line between trained and consumer panels for analytical tests has blurred and is expected to continue to do so. The present opinion paper discusses some of the most relevant issues around the debate of whether consumer or trained assessor panels are appropriate for analytical testing in specific application and provides recommendations for practitioners on this respect.

The terpene content of milk and cream made from milk obtained from cows fed indoors, and by early or late grazing, in alpine rangeland farms in Norway, were analysed for three consecutive years. The main terpenes identified and semi-quantified were the monoterpenes β-pinene, α-pinene, α-thujene, camphene, sabinene, δ-3-carene, d-limonene, γ-terpinene, camphor, β-citronellene, and the sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene. The average total terpene content increased five times during the alpine rangeland feeding period. The terpenes α-thujene, sabinene, γ-terpinene and β-citronellene were only detected in milk and cultured cream from the alpine rangeland feeding period and not in samples from the indoors feeding period. These four terpenes could be used, as indicators, to show that milk and cultured cream originate from the alpine rangeland feeding period. The terpenes did not influence the sensorial quality of the milk or the cultured cream.

Forest harvesting practices can potentially increase mercury run-off from catchments. A paired catchment experiment was conducted in a boreal forest in southern Norway, to test effects of forest harvest operations on (i) concentrations and fluxes of methylmercury (MeHg), total mercury (HgT), nutrients and dissolved organic matter (TOC), and on (ii) MeHg bioaccumulation in stream foodwebs. Thirty percent of a catchment was harvested in winter time with snow cover but no soil frost, resulting in wheel tracks and soil compaction. Pre-harvest differences included higher streamwater MeHg, HgT and TOC, and lower pH in the treated catchment compared to the reference. No significant treatment effects on concentrations of MeHg, HgT and TOC were detected, whereas concentrations of nutrients (ammonium, nitrate, phosphorus (P)) increased significantly. Estimated catchment export of nitrate and ammonium increased fourfold, as a combined effect of changed discharge and concentrations. Export of MeHg and HgT increased weakly, primarily because of an increase in discharge. Levels of MeHg in stream invertebrates mirrored differences in aquatic MeHg between the two streams, resulting in higher MeHg in biota in the harvest catchment in pre-harvest conditions. After harvest, MeHg levels in primary consumers (herbivorous stoneflies) were no longer different between the two streams, despite continued exposure to higher aqueous MeHg in the harvested catchment. Simultaneously, dietary biomarkers (δ15N signature, lipid- and algal fatty acid content) in the stoneflies had changed significantly, consistent with higher nutrient loadings and associated higher diet availability in the harvested stream. The results of our experiment do not support that forest management has a strong impact on catchment MeHg production. Catchment disturbance through forest harvesting may decrease MeHg in aquatic biota, because of higher stream productivity and associated higher quality of dietary sources, at least in the short-term. Other studies on catchment MeHg production to disturbance have shown a range in responses, from strong to none. So far, no factor has emerged to explain such range in responses. Predictions of forest management effects on MeHg in streamwater and aquatic food webs are hampered by limited understanding of catchment controls on MeHg production.

Surveillance programs for animal diseases are critical to early disease detection and risk estimation and to documenting a population’s disease status at a given time. The aim of this study was to describe a risk-based surveillance program for detecting Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection in Norwegian dairy cattle. The included risk factors for detecting MAP were purchase of cattle, combined cattle and goat farming, and location of the cattle farm in counties containing goats with MAP. The risk indicators included production data [culling of animals >3yr of age, carcass conformation of animals >3yr of age, milk production decrease in older lactating cows (lactations 3, 4, and 5)], and clinical data (diarrhea, enteritis, or both, in animals >3yr of age). Except for combined cattle and goat farming and cattle farm location, all data were collected at the cow level and summarized at the herd level. Predefined risk factors and risk indicators were extracted from different national databases and combined in a multivariate statistical process control to obtain a risk assessment for each herd. The ordinary Hotelling’s T2 statistic was applied as a multivariate, standardized measure of difference between the current observed state and the average state of the risk factors for a given herd. To make the analysis more robust and adapt it to the slowly developing nature of MAP, monthly risk calculations were based on data accumulated during a 24-mo period. Monitoring of these variables was performed to identify outliers that may indicate deviance in one or more of the underlying processes. The highest-ranked herds were scattered all over Norway and clustered in high-density dairy cattle farm areas. The resulting rankings of herds are being used in the national surveillance program for MAP in 2014 to increase the sensitivity of the ongoing surveillance program in which 5 fecal samples for bacteriological examination are collected from 25 dairy herds. The use of multivariate statistical process control for selection of herds will be beneficial when a diagnostic test suitable for mass screening is available and validated on the Norwegian cattle population, thus making it possible to increase the number of sampled herds.

Tram T Vuong,1 Sissel B Rønning,1 Henri-Pierre Suso,2 Ralf Schmidt,2 Kristian Prydz,3 Marlene Lundström,3 Anders Moen,3 Mona E Pedersen1 1Department of Raw Materials and Process Optimisation, Nofima AS, Ås, 2Biovotec AS, 3Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Abstract: Avian eggshell membrane (ESM) is a natural biomaterial that has been used as an alternative natural bandage on burned and cut skin injuries for >400 years in Asian countries, and is available in large quantities from egg industries. Our aim was to characterize ESM that was separated and processed from egg waste, and to study whether this material possesses anti-inflammatory properties, making it suitable as an ingredient in industrial production of low cost wound healing products. Our results show that the processed ESM particles retain a fibrous structure similar to that observed for the native membrane, and contain collagen, and carbohydrate components such as hyaluronic acid and sulfated glycosaminoglycans, as well as N-glycans, mostly with uncharged structures. Furthermore, both processed ESM powder and the ESM-derived carbohydrate fraction had immunomodulation properties in monocytes and macrophage-like cells. Under inflammatory conditions induced by lipopolysaccharide, the ESM powder and the isolated carbohydrate fraction reduced the activity of the transcription factor nuclear factor-κB. The expression of the immune regulating receptors toll-like receptor 4 and ICAM-1, as well as the cell surface glycoprotein CD44, all important during inflammation response, were down-regulated by these fractions. Interestingly, our experiments show that the two fractions regulated cytokine secretion differently: ESM depressed inflammation by increased secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 while the carbohydrate fraction reduced secretions of the pro inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6. Also, the phosphorylation of p65 and p50 subunits of nuclear factor-κB, as well as nuclear localization, differed between processed ESM powder and carbohydrate fraction, suggesting different down-stream regulation during inflammation. In conclusion, processed ESM powder and its soluble carbohydrate components possess anti-inflammatory properties, demonstrating the potential of ESM as a novel biological wound dressing for treatment of chronic inflammatory wounds. Keywords: eggshell membrane, anti-inflammation, cytokine secretions, signal transduction pathways, NF-κB, THP-1 cells, wound healing, carbohydrates, hyaluronic acid