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The one-year extension of the 2018 Farm Bill until September 30, 2024, has extended several government programs for the 2024 crop year including those in Title I: Commodities. This analysis looks at three different financial scenarios and analyzes five different alternatives for a case farm to select the optimal farm program decision for the operation by evaluating net farm income. Since 2021, eligible producers have been able to elect either Agriculture Risk Coverage (ARC) or Price Loss Coverage (PLC) for their operation on an annual basis. Support levels for these programs are trending close together making the election decision more complex this year as opposed to previous years. Utilizing a case farm in Gage County Nebraska that is representative of a typical operation in the county provides the framework for farm level analysis of farm program decisions. The case farm consists of irrigated and non-irrigated corn and soybean enterprises. Analyzing the relevant data at the national, state, and county levels and drawing on correlations and distributional assumptions to simulate farm level data provides the necessary parameters to analyze farm program decisions eligible producers can make. Results and conclusions based on this simulation for the 2024 crop year indicate the combination of farm program decisions and crop insurance that provides the optimal balance of risk and return for a risk-averse producer. Program decisions reflect current legislation laid out in the 2018 Farm Bill. The programs could change with future farm bill legislation, extension, or elimination, leaving the need for continued farm level research. The alternatives in this analysis based on different financial scenarios for the case farm include crop insurance and production practices that reflect similar operations in Gage County. Results could vary for farms with different acres, enterprises, and locations, but this analysis provides a framework for a stochastic simulation for farm level analysis that could be adapted for other farms, crops, farm programs, or years. Advisor: Bradley D. Lubben

Agriculture has been crucial to the economic and cultural well-being of South Carolina throughout the state’s storied history. This importance has not diminished in our contemporary world. Agribusiness, which includes the agriculture and forestry sectors, is the largest industry in the state, providing nearly 260,000 jobs and 51.8 billion in annual economic impact. Almost 25,000 working farms encompass 4.8 million acres of land in South Carolina . It is no stretch to claim that South Carolina’s agricultural industry affects almost every individual in the state. If not directly involved in the agriculture industry, it is nearly certain all residents have at least consumed a commodity grown in South Carolina. The encompassing impact of South Carolina’s agricultural industry emphasizes the necessity for robust research on the topic. This work focuses on two commodities grown in South Carolina: kale and rice. These crops each in part represent the past, present, and future of South Carolina’s agricultural production. This thesis is delineated into two separate research projects. Chapter one performs a willingness to pay (WTP) analysis on visually imperfect (VI) organic kale in the Southeastern U.S. using a payment card approach. Factors are evaluated for their effect on WTP, and a profitability case study for a large organic kale producer is conducted. Kale growers will be interested in the results of this study as it sheds light on the marketability of VI kale, most of which is currently unsold. Similarly, the results hold significance for kale markets in the Southeast, including grocery stores and farmer’s markets. Chapter two discusses the history of South Carolina’s rice industry and why climatic changes are prompting renewed interest in the commodity. An enterprise budget for rice production specific to South Carolina’s rice production is constructed. Using this data, sensitivity and breakeven point analyses are performed to examine profitability. Current growers, potential growers, and local rice markets are all stakeholders with relevant interests to these results.

This study focuses on enhancing the efficiency of solar cooking through the use of solar cookers and heat retention boxes. The research involved testing various cooking vessels and lids in a solar cooking experiment, with a specific focus on the performance of different materials and their heat retention capabilities. The experiment aimed to increase the efficiency of solar cookers, which are popular in developing nations due to their relatively low cost. The findings indicate that the combination of a solar cooker and a heat retention box can significantly improve the cooking process, particularly in areas with limited access to cooking supplies. The study also highlights the impact of weather conditions on the performance of the heat retention box and emphasizes the potential benefits for communities in Haiti. Additionally, the research explores the implications of the study's findings for household and communal solar cooking, emphasizing the potential for cost-effective and sustainable cooking solutions. The study concludes by acknowledging the need for further research and education to promote the efficient and sustainable use of solar cookers in developing nations.

The Tennessee equine industry is alive and prevalent across the entire state. However, due to the expansiveness of the industry, lack of consistent record keeping, and large discrepancies among reporting agencies, it has proven to be difficult to accurately account for the total impact of the industry in terms of population, demographics, and overall economic impact. The objective of this study was to 1) determine population demographics and economic impact of the equine industry in Tennessee and 2) determine the public perception on the addition of live equine racing within the state. An anonymous, online assessment was developed (March-August 2022; Qualtrics, Provo, UT) to determine individual industry involvement, where respondents reported information based on ownership expenditures, business services, and overall financial activity. Data was analyzed for descriptive statistics using the means and frequency procedures in SAS 9.4 (Cary, NC). Economic modeling was performed using economic Impact Analysis for Planning (IMPLAN), an input-output model, to analyze the data to estimate the total (multiplier-based) economic contribution of the industry. Of the 2,009 respondents, 91% (n=1,830) were equine owners or leasers that identified 8,235 equids. Utilizing response results with previously estimated equid populations of 104,827 from the 2017 USDA Census, 165,800 from the American Horse Council, and population trend lines over time, an overall population of 140,000 equids was determined for Tennessee in 2021. Overall, ownership costs per equid was estimated to be $6,719, including boarding fees, healthcare, feed stuffs, pasture maintenance, and training. In terms of the addition of a racing sector, 38% (n=571) supported it, while 28% (n=427) did not, mostly due to welfare concerns for the equid. Despite the lack of economic stimulation from a racing sector, the Tennessee equine industry has an overall impact estimated to be $1.805 billion in total economic activity, 33,345 jobs, and $1.032 billion in gross state product. The equine industry has the opportunity for substantial growth and development in the coming years, including expansion of jobs, available services, and overall industry growth.

This thesis comprises two studies investigating the market outlet choices of small-scale fruit and vegetable producers in Arkansas. By examining the marketing decisions of producers in the region, the objective was to profile producers based on their utilization of different available outlets and identify the factors influencing their decisions regarding where to sell their products. Data from a survey conducted in the Ozark Mountain Region (comprising Arkansas, Southern Missouri and Eastern Oklahoma) during Fall of 2022 were analyzed using k-means clustering to classify producers based on their characteristics, thus establishing distinct producer profiles. Multinomial logit regression was employed to determine the impact of selected factors on producers' likelihood of choosing one outlet over another. The findings of this research reveal three distinct types of producers in Arkansas. Firstly, there are the farmer's market lovers, predominantly female, who prioritize selling at farmers' markets due to their preference for connecting with consumers rather than seeking additional outlets. Secondly, there are The Trial-and-error producers, whose small-scale fruit and vegetable production appears to be a hobby. Per their name they are trying out different outlets to sell their products as they also had the least sales. Lastly, there are The Experienced wholesalers, who predominantly grow for resellers. This group, mainly comprising men and individuals of white ethnicity, prefers selling to wholesalers and restaurants. Notably, this group attains the highest revenues and demonstrates a stronger focus on organic production practices. Also, they grew a large variety of crops which was considered counterintuitive given that wholesaling typically requires large minimum order quantities. A hypothesized reason for crop diversification is pest, disease, and weed management necessary with organic production. Local governments and organizations can employ targeted strategies based on these findings. For instance, women should be the primary focus when providing market information and promoting organic production practices, given their significant representation among farmer's market lovers. Conversely, when introducing new services such as food hubs and delivery options, men should be the target audience, as experienced wholesalers are predominantly male. The second analysis highlights several factors that influence producers' choice of outlets. These factors include proximity to the market, production practices, market entry requirements, license/fee/registration/certification, and crop diversification. Since greater distance to market is costly in terms of fuel and labor, produce pickup by wholesalers is envisioned as a means to enhance a producer’s choice to sell to wholesalers, in turn making produce available to consumers at grocery outlets. The limitations of this research include potential self-reporting bias and the exclusive focus on fruit and vegetable producers, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, certain relevant variables could not be considered due to incomplete information provided by respondents given the length of the survey.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has implemented conservation programs through Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and Farm Service Agency (FSA). Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP), and Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) are some of them. These programs provide financial and technical assistance to farmers and ranchers to adopt land management practices that generate environmental benefits. In this study, we explore the determinants of participation in conservation programs (CRP, CSP, EQIP) in Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska. For this, we use a unique survey-based data set comprising observations from row crop farmers in these states. We are interested in this issue since participation in conservation programs is a complex decision driven by factors dependent upon the nature of the operation as well as the attributes of the operator. For example, current farming practices, the size of the farms, education, and income from farming are associated with the willingness to participate in conservation programs (Gladkikh et al., 2020; Gyawali et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2021). Additionally, Dessart et al., (2019) have emphasized the role of behavioral factors in influencing producers' adoption of sustainable land use practices. Gladkikh, et al. (2020) also suggest exploring environmental attitudes in future research. Therefore, in addition to demographic and socio-economic variables, we investigate the impact of attitudinal and behavioral factors on the decision to participate in conservation programs. The non-attitudinal variables considered include age, size of owned and rented land acreage, education level of the operator, years of farming experience, income from the farm, gross annual income, participation in crop insurance, and past participation in any conservation program. The socio-behavioral and environmental variables include whether the operator prioritizes profit maximization or cost minimization as their main objective and the extent to which they prioritize environmental benefits or economic benefits generated from their choice of participation. Taken together, these variables are used to estimate a logistic regression model where the dependent variable takes a value of 1 if the respondent participated at the time of the survey in a conservation program and 0 otherwise. The logistic regression analysis was performed for three conservation programs individually. The results show that the farm size, level of income, economic benefits associated with participation, two personality traits, and current and past participation positively and significantly influences participation in a conservation program. Additionally, having crop insurance and farm successor has a negative and significant impact on the probability of participation in CRP with no impact on CSP and EQIP participation likelihood. Advisor: Simanti Banerjee

The purpose of this cross-sectional study is to examine the perceptions of Psychological Capital (PsyCap) growth among college student leaders who mentor. Recent research documented a positive association between mentoring and the mentee’s PsyCap growth, yet little is known about how mentoring impacts the mentor’s PsyCap. Additionally, though PsyCap has been researched considerably in the last decade, little is known about both the antecedents of PsyCap and the social mechanisms that contribute to the growth of PsyCap. This study addresses these gaps and examines the influence of mentoring for leadership development on the mentors’ perceptions of PsyCap growth. There are two specific research questions: (a) the perceptions of change in PsyCap in college student leaders who mentor, (b) the moderating effect of time spent mentoring on the mentors’ perceptions of change in PsyCap. Participants will complete an online survey that includes demographic information and their length of time mentoring, plus the PsyCap survey (PCQ-12) taken in a “post then pre” approach, and the Big Five Inventory (BFI) to measure the personality characteristics of conscientiousness and extroversion. A one-way ANCOVA plus a factorial ANCOVA will be used to analyze the data and to examine the perceptions of PsyCap change in mentors, plus understand the moderating influence of the number of months spent mentoring on the mentor’s perception of PsyCap change while controlling for gender, GPA range, and the Big 5 personality characteristics of conscientiousness and extroversion. Advisor: Lindsay J. Hastings

Turnover and employee burnout are problems the Cooperative Extension System is facing nationwide, and the Clemson University Cooperative Extension System is no exception. There has been previous research done within the Extension system to identify the factors contributing to turnover and burnout, however, both remain an issue. Yet, there has been no research done to examine the Clemson University Cooperative Extension System individually. To further investigate factors contributing to burnout, this pilot study was conducted with Clemson University Clemson Extension agents using a burnout assessment that has not previously been used in Extension research. This study described Clemson University Cooperative Extension agents’ perceptions of six work constructs that may lead to burnout to determine if there were any relationships between the constructs and demographic characteristics of Clemson University Cooperative Extension Agents. The work constructs studied were workload, control, community, reward, fairness, and values. Findings indicated that agents had an overall positive perception of the constructs, and the constructs studied were not contributors to burnout among Clemson University Extension agents. There was also only one relationship found between burnout risk and demographic characteristics. The younger an Extension agent was, the lower the fairness score was. This study established reliability coefficients for the survey instrument used and identified future implications for the use of the instrument. Since there were inconsistencies in the data when compared to the literature review, it is recommended that future research be conducted using other factors of work to identify which do contribute to burnout.

This thesis combines two papers to provide a better understanding of the effects and management of water scarcity during periods of water shortage. The first manuscript discusses the evolution of water rights across the southeastern United States in response to increasing demands and droughts, while the second manuscript studies the effects of water scarcity on agriculture production in the western US. The southeastern United States has historically benefited from abundant water supplies, allowing them to apply the riparian doctrine with little regulation. However, in the past few decades, the region has undergone major shifts in water policy. In the first manuscript, I explore the evolution of water policy in nine southeastern states under the riparian rights doctrine. Specifically, I first discuss the changes in the region that may have affected the demand for water. I then discuss that an increase in temporal water scarcity may have resulted in an increase in the magnitude of spatial externalities. Next, I build on the theory of property rights evolving to internalize the externalities associated with the scarcity of resources and show the evolution of water rights across the nine states. Finally, I discuss the direction of the new policies and the drivers for the policy shift. I find that as water scarcity increases, the magnitude of externalities from water scarcity also increases leading to changes in policy to better define property rights. The second manuscript seeks to investigate the impacts of water scarcity on agricultural production. Irrigation water availability can affect the production of irrigated crops across arid and semi-arid regions. Furthermore, salinity in soil and water bodies affects the productivity of salt-sensitive crops and is a major concern in many irrigated agricultural regions. I study the impact of changes in root zone salinity and irrigation water availability on farmers' crop choice decisions. The study focuses on irrigated agricultural production in the Arkansas River Valley in Colorado, where the salinization of soil, groundwater, and surface water has worsened over the past few decades. I utilize a unique parcel-level panel dataset and a discrete choice modeling approach to study the effect of changes in root zone salinity and water availability on land use and crop choice. The results show that an increase in root zone salinity increases the probability of a parcel being fallowed and decreases the probability of high-value crops such as melons and corn. However, a greater snowpack can decrease the effect of salinity on crop choice.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many temporary labor workers who were employed in foreign countries lost their jobs and had to return to their homeland. These skilled laborers are involved in daily household tasks and farming decision-making processes. This study investigates the role of labor migrants who returned to their households due to COVID-19 on the climate change adaptation of farmers. The migrant laborers are relatively better educated, willing to adopt modern technology, and receive training. An ordered logistic regression was used to analyze the impact of COVID-19 on household’s access to institutional factors (Extension services, subsidies, and internet) as well as other relevant explanatory variables on the farmer’s adoption of climate change adaptation practices. 443 smallholder farmers were selected from Sunsari district based on convenience, Nepal for a face-to-face interview. The results indicated migrant labor’s return to households had an effect on the climate change adaptation of farmers. With the impact of COVID on labor migration being temporary, the migrant laborers are expected to return to their jobs overseas, it is expected that it may result in a potential negative impact on the local climate change adaptation of farmers. Since institutional factors (Extension, subsidy, and internet) have a positive impact on adaptation it could be used to complement the gap created by returning migrant laborers. An increase in an additional unit of access to Extension and subsidy decreased the likelihood of low-intensity climate change adaptation strategies (i.e., one or two practices adopted) whereas access increased the likelihood of adopting high intensity climate change adaptation strategies (i.e., three, four or five practices adopted). Specifically, increasing access to Extensions and subsidies should be greatly beneficial for rice producers in the Sunsari district. Among the three institutional factors, access to Extension should be prioritized over access to subsidy because of its greater impact on the adoption of climate change adaptation practices.

Food waste is a significant problem in the United States with over 133 billion pounds of food that goes unused or neglected by consumers every year. Consumers use best-if-used-by dates (BUBDs) as a cue in evaluating food and deciding when to throw away food. Using an experimental sensory approach, 183 consumers evaluated the appearance and taste of salads and lunch meat with varying BUBDs. After completing sensory evaluations, participants were then asked to state their willingness to pay (WTP) for each of the varying BUBDs and the percentage of the food product their household would consume, based on their recent consumption habits and its associated BUBD. On average, consumers were willing to pay $0.76 to $1.38 per bag for the varying bagged salads and $1.78 to $2.31 per package for the varying lunch meats. Consumers stated their household would consume on average 57 to 75% of the varying bagged salads and 67 to 75% of the varying lunch meats. Tobit regressions were used to examine factors influencing WTP and household expected consumption of the food products. BUBDs and taste and appearance ratings were significant in determining bagged salad and lunch meat WTP and anticipated consumption. The bagged salad lunch meat nearby and middle BUBDs were discounted significantly when compared to the furthest away BUBD. The furthest away BUBDs increased anticipated consumption compared to the nearby BUBDs. As consumers rated the taste and appearance of the salads and lunch meat higher, they stated they would consume more of the food products. Results provide insight into how BUBDs and sensory evaluation of foods influence expected food waste of lunch meat and salads. Sensory evaluations are preferred to BUBDs to evaluate food; however, consumers will use BUBDs when sensory evaluations are not available.