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Background. This study examined the racial differences in probabilities of transitioning across three disability levels of walking 1/2 mile in a community-dwelling population of older women. Methods. The sample comprised 436 community-dwelling older women who were among the two-third least disabled women in Baltimore, Maryland. The levels of disability status of walking 1/2 mile included high functioning defined as reporting no difficulty, preclinical disability defined as reports of task modification but no reported difficulty, and disability defined as reported difficulty. First-order Markov transition models were specified to determine whether race influences the types of individual-level transitions between difficulty levels of walking 1/2 mile. Results. Among high-functioning women, African Americans were more likely to be disabled at the next round than their White counterparts. African American women who began with preclinical disability were more likely to die before the next round. After adjusting for age, education, and perceived income inadequacy, African American women tended to have an increased risk of becoming disabled if preclinically disabled than White women. Conclusions. Prevention through identification of individuals at an early phase of decline appears to be key to addressing racial disparities in physical disability even in later life. Key Words: Racial disparities--Preclinical disability--Mobility disability--Walking.

Objectives. We assess the income and wealth packages of older women's (age 65+ years) households and the extent to which low income is paired with low wealth, across a group of six high-income countries. Methods. We use data on income and net worth from the Luxembourg Wealth Study, a new cross-national microdatabase. We define income poverty as having household income less than 50% of the national median and asset poverty as holding financial assets equivalent to less than 6 months of income at the poverty threshold. Results. Older women typically have less income than do members of younger households at the national median, but their wealth holdings are generally much higher than their country's median wealth holdings. Older women's households in the United States report the highest net worth across these countries, in part because older American women have comparatively high rates of homeownership. However, American older women are also substantially more likely to be income poor. They also report high levels of asset poverty, as do women across all our comparison countries, with Sweden as a partial exception. Discussion. Further research is needed to identify the most vulnerable subgroups, to integrate analyses of necessary expenditures, and to assess policy implications. Key Words: Income--Wealth--Poverty--Comparative Women--Older.

Objective: Older people may act as sensitive indicators of the effectiveness of health systems. Our objective is to distinguish between the effects of socio-economic and behavioural factors and use of health services on urban-rural differences in mortality and health of elderly women. Methods: Baseline and longitudinal analysis of data from a prospective cohort study. Participants were a community-based random sample of women (n=12778) aged 70-75 years when recruited in 1996 to the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Measures used were: urban or rural residence in Australian States and Territories, socio-demographic characteristics, health related behaviour, survival up to 1 October 2006, physical and mental health scores and use of medical services. Results: Mortality was higher in rural than in urban women (hazard ratio, HR 1.14; 95% CI, 1.03,-1.26) but there were no differences between States and Territories. There were no consistent baseline or longitudinal differences between women for physical or mental health, with or without adjustment for socio-demographic and behavioural factors. Rural women had fewer visits to general practitioners (odds ratio, OR=0.54; 95% CI, 0.48-0.61) and medical specialists (OR=0.60; 95% CI, 0.55-0.65). Conclusions: Differences in use of health services are a more plausible explanation for higher mortality in rural than urban areas than differences in other factors. Implications: Older people may be the 'grey canaries' of the health system and may thus provide an 'early warning system' to policy makers and governments. Key words: Women's health, mortality, rural health, urban health, health services.

Women face a greater risk of poverty than men as they get older, but this risk varies considerably by race and ethnicity. Using data from the Census Bureau's 2002-2005 March Current Population Surveys, this article examines racial and ethnic differences in women's retirement security, with special attention given to differences in their marital status and living arrangements in old age. Findings show that African American and Hispanic women are more likely than white or Asian American women to be unmarried at ages 65 and older. Older minority women are also much more likely than older white women to live in extended family households, regardless of marital status. The poverty rate is lower for those living in extended family households than those living alone, indicating a potential safety net provided by other family members; yet, the degree of economic support received from extended family arrangements tends to vary by race and ethnicity. The examination of personal sources of retirement income--Social Security, pensions, and assets---indicates that an above poverty household income does not necessarily reflect a personal level of financial security. The level of women's retirement security coming from all income sources varies by race and ethnicity, marital status, and living arrangements. KEYWORDS race and ethnicity, women's retirement security, poverty, living arrangements, marriage, Social Security, pensions, assets DOI: 10.1080/15544770902901890

Objective: To measure utilisation of Enhanced Primary Care (EPC) health assessment items for women aged 75 years and over, and to describe health and socio-demographic characteristics of users and non-users. Method: Analysis of longitudinal survey and Medicare claims data from women in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH) aged 75 to 78 years when EPC items were introduced and who provided permission to access their Medicare records for the period 1999-2003 (n=4,646). Results: There was an increase in uptake of assessments over four years: from November 1999, 12% of eligible women had a health assessment during the following year; by October 2003, 49% had at least one health assessment ever. Few had repeat assessments. Women who visited a GP more often and who were satisfied with the number of GPs available were more likely to have an assessment in the first 12 months, and women who visited a GP more often, those taking more medications, and those caring for another were more likely to have at least one assessment in four years. Women in smaller rural and remote areas were less likely to have an assessment than women in urban areas. Conclusions: Most women are not having annual assessments and there is some geographic inequity. Key words: Health assessment, health care utilisation, ageing, rural.

The need for effective social security reforms, for women group, is discussed.

The debate over the usefulness of the multiple jeopardy concept is presented. From one point of view minority women, poor women, and women who live alone are at risk of ill health as they age. Another point of view would suggest that minority women and poor women use personal, familial, and community resources to create positive outcomes and that research needs to be directed toward understanding the resources and strategies they use. In a sample of women age 60 and older in Tennessee a saturated logistic regression model was used to determine the effects of living arrangements, education, age, and race on self-reported health. Odds ratios, representing the likelihood of reporting poor or fair health, were determined. Women without high school educations were more likely to report poor or fair health irrespective of combinations of age, race, or living arrangements. Men in the sample do not show this pattern. We need to understand more about how older women use person and other resources to affect positive health outcomes.

The economic position of many elders has improved over the past few decades. Several groups of elders remain disadvantaged, however, including nonmetropolitan elders and women in any setting. This study examines differences in household income and poverty rates for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan women ages 55 and over in 1970, 1980 and 1990. Comparison of median incomes for women the same age across birth cohorts reveals that much of the improvement in women's economic well-being occurs because younger cohorts have higher incomes when they enter older ages. There also is evidence that incomes decline as the cohort ages. Nonmetro women have lower incomes and higher poverty rates than metro women in every comparison, even when demographic characteristics are controlled. While the metro/nonmetro income gap declines from 1970 to 1980, it increases from 1980 to 1990. The largest income gap occurs for women ages 55 to 64 in 1990, the youngest cohort examined, offering no evidence to support convergence of household incomes among metro and nonmetro older women in the near future.