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The polysaccharides (PS) of Agaricus bitoquis (Quél.) Sacc. Chaidam (ABSC) had attracted the attention of researchers due to their strong anti hypoxia, antioxidant, and anti fatigue activities. Therefore, this article focuses on studying the regulatory channels of exogenous additives-Lycium ruthenicum Murr. Anthocyanin (LRA) to delay fungus cell aging and promote the incremental synthesis of PS from ABSC, and optimizing the regulation system for pilot fermentation experiments. The joint analysis of Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOFMS) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) database elucidates that at the molecular level, the crude extract of LRA inhibits the Telecommunications Association (TCA) cycle, transferring carbon metabolism to the synthesis of polysaccharide precursors (UDP-glucose, UDP-galactose, etc.), promoting the synthesis of PS, promoting the formation of key antioxidant substances (including flavonoids such as quercetin and alginate), improving cell membrane fluidity (saturated fatty acid to unsaturated conversion) and enhancing the degradation of toxic substances (oxidized glutathione), thereby promoting the anti-aging activity and PS synthesis ability of mycelial cells; LRA-adding could enhance the activity in the pilot fermentation of ABSC, which make the mycelia biomass, EPS and IPS production were significantly increased (89.04 %, 65.46 % and 37.64 % respectively) compared with the untreatment control. Based on the optimal fermentation system of PS synthesized in mycelium by adding LRA, Logistic, Gauss, and Asymptotic kinetic equations were used to describe the cell growth, product synthesis and regulatory substrate consumption from ABSC. The correlation coefficients of three models were all above 0.95, indicating a good fit between the experimental values and predicted value, this indicated ABSC fermentation kinetics model could better simulate the actual production process and provide theoretical data for the industrial production of polysaccharides. The results demonstrated that the present proposed LRA intensification approach could be useful to boost up the fermentation of ABSC, which possibly applied to yield increase and fermentation product acquisition of macrofungi., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Edible fungi are emerging as a valuable dietary fiber source with health benefits, where their bioactivity hinges on their structure. This study targets the structure-activity relationship of soluble dietary fibers from Lentinus edodes (LESDF), Agaricus bisporus (ABSDF), and Hericium erinaceus (HESDF), focusing on their impact on gut microbiota and health. We explored the properties and structures of edible fungi, finding their soluble fibers affect metabolites and gut microbiota by increasing gas and lowering pH. Among these, HESDF demonstrated superior effects (pH: △1.4 ± 0.07; Gas production: △24.5 ± 0.4 mL). Furthermore, different types of edible fungi dietary fiber exhibited distinct capabilities in promoting the production of short-chain fatty acids by gut microorganisms. For instance, ABSDF exceled in acetic acid production (26.12 ± 0.35 mM) and propionic acid production (9.50 ± 0.13 mM), while HESDF stood out in butyric acid production (17.86 ± 0.09 mM). LESDF showed higher levels of Phascolarctobacterium, ABSDF had elevated levels of Ruminococcus, and HESDF displayed increased levels of Faecalibacterium. These results contribute to our understanding of how soluble dietary fiber from different edible fungi impacts gut microbiota and offers insights for the development and utilization of these fibers as functional food., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The cholesterol lowering properties of oats and barley, attributed to their high β-glucan content, are well established, but it remains unclear whether mushrooms, also rich in β-glucan, exhibit a similar functionality. We aimed to quantify the β-glucan content of commonly consumed Australian mushrooms and evaluated their bile acid binding capacity, the primary cholesterol lowering mechanism of β-glucan. Raw, boiled and fried Australian grown Agaricus bisporus (button, cup, flat and brown mushrooms) and Pleurotus spp. (shimeji and oyster) along with oats were freeze-dried and the β-glucan content was determined. The bile acid binding capacity of these samples was assessed using an in vitro digestion assay. The β-glucan content of freeze-dried raw A. bisporus mushrooms (4.5-8.1 g per 100 g) was similar to that of oats (7.6 g per 100 g, all p > 0.05), whereas Pleurotus mushrooms contained ∼5 times more β-glucan (32.5-37.4 g, p < 0.05). Boiling increased the β-glucan content of oyster, button, flat and brown mushrooms by 3-7% ( p < 0.05), but did not affect the β-glucan content of shimeji or cup mushrooms. Frying had no effect on any mushroom type. The bile acid binding capacity of A. bisporus mushrooms (29-36%) was equivalent to that of raw oats (36%, p > 0.05), whereas the bile acid binding capacity of oyster mushrooms (22%) was lower than that of oats ( p < 0.05). Both boiling and frying increased the bile acid binding capacity. The cholesterol lowering effects of A. bisporus mushrooms and the acceptability of consumption at the required levels need to be confirmed by clinical trials.

Intercropping systems have garnered attention as a sustainable agricultural approach for efficient land use, increased ecological diversity in farmland, and enhanced crop yields. This study examined the effect of intercropping on the kiwifruit rhizosphere to gain a deeper understanding of the relationships between cover plants and kiwifruit in this sustainable agricultural system. Soil physicochemical properties and bacterial communities were analyzed using the Kiwifruit-Agaricus blazei intercropping System. Moreover, a combined analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequencing and metabolomic sequencing was used to identify differential microbes and metabolites in the rhizosphere. Intercropping led to an increase in soil physicochemical and enzyme activity, as well as re-shaping the bacterial community and increasing microbial diversity. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota, Myxococcota, and Patescibacteria were the most abundant and diverse phyla in the intercropping system. Expression analysis further revealed that the bacterial genera BIrii41, Acidibacter, and Altererythrobacter were significantly upregulated in the intercropping system. Moreover, 358 differential metabolites (DMs) were identified between the monocropping and intercropping cultivation patterns, with fatty acyls, carboxylic acids and derivatives, and organooxygen compounds being significantly upregulated in the intercropping system. The KEGG metabolic pathways further revealed considerable enrichment of DMs in ABC transporters, histidine metabolism, and pyrimidine metabolism. This study identified a significant correlation between 95 bacterial genera and 79 soil metabolites, and an interactive network was constructed to explore the relationships between these differential microbes and metabolites in the rhizosphere. This study demonstrated that Kiwifruit-Agaricus blazei intercropping can be an effective, labor-saving, economic, and sustainable practice for reshaping bacterial communities and promoting the accumulation and metabolism of beneficial microorganisms in the rhizosphere., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) holds valuable microbiota that can be useful in remediating polluted soils with hydrocarbons. However, the microorganisms behind the bioremediation process remain uncertain. In this work, a bioremediation assay of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) polluted soil by SMS application was performed to elucidate the microorganisms and consortia involved in biodegradation by a metabarcoding analysis. Untreated polluted soil was compared to seven bioremediation treatments by adding SMS of Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus ostreatus, and combinations. Soil microbial activity, TPH biodegradation, taxonomic classification, and predictive functional analysis were evaluated in the microbiopiles at 60 days. Different metagenomics approaches were performed to understand the impact of each SMS on native soil microbiota and TPHs biodegradation. All SMSs enhanced the degradation of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, being A. bisporus the most effective, promoting an efficient consortium constituted by the bacterial families Alcanivoraceae, Alcaligenaceae, and Dietziaceae along with the fungal genera Scedosporium and Aspergillus. The predictive 16 S rRNA gene study partially explained the decontamination efficacy by observing changes in the taxonomic structure of bacteria and fungi, and changes in the potential profiles of estimated degradative genes across the different treatments. This work provides new insights into TPHs bioremediation., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Agaricus mushrooms are an important genus in the Agaricaceae family, belonging to the order Agaricales of the class Basidiomycota. Among them, Agaricus bisporus is a common mushroom for mass consumption, which is not only nutritious but also possesses significant medicinal properties such as anticancer, antibacterial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. The rare edible mushroom, Agaricus blazei , contains unique agaricol compounds with significant anticancer activity against liver cancer. Agaricus blazei is believed to expel wind and cold, i.e., the pathogenic factors of wind and cold from the body, and is an important formula in traditional Chinese medicine. Despite its nutritional richness and outstanding medicinal value, Agaricus mushrooms have not been systematically compiled and summarized. Therefore, the present review compiles and classifies 70 natural products extracted from Agaricus mushrooms over the past six decades. These compounds exhibit diverse biological and pharmacological activities, with particular emphasis on antitumor and antioxidant properties. While A. blazei and A. bisporus are the primary producers of these compounds, studies on secondary metabolites from other Agaricus species remain limited. Further research is needed to explore and understand the anticancer and nutritional properties of Agaricus mushrooms. This review contributes to the understanding of the structure, bioactivity, and biosynthetic pathways of Agaricus compounds and provides insights for the development of functional foods using these mushrooms.

Agaricus blazei is a rare medicinal and edible fungus with a crispy taste and delicious flavor. Both fruiting body and mycelium are rich in polysaccharides, sterols, terpenoids, peptides, lipids, polyphenols, and other active ingredients, which have strong pharmacological activities such as anti-tumor, lipid-lowering, glucose-lowering, immunomodulation, optimization of intestinal flora, and anti-oxidation. Therefore, it is a kind of fungal resource with a great prospect of edible and medicinal development. Among the reported chemical components of A. blazei, blazeispirol is a series of sterol compounds unique to A. blazei, which has a spiral structure and is different from classical steroids. It is an important active ingredient found in the mycelium of A. blazei and has significant hepatoprotective activity. It can be used as a phylogenetic and chemotaxonomic marker of A. blazei strains and is considered an excellent lead compound for drug development. According to the skeleton structure characteristics, the 17 discovered blazeispirol compounds can be divided into two types: blazeispirane and problazeispirane. In order to further explore the resource of blazeispirol compounds of A. blazei, the discovery, isolation, structure, biological activity, and biosynthetic pathways of blazeispirol compounds of A. blazei were systematically reviewed. Besides, the metabolic regulation strategies related to the fermentation synthesis of blazeispirol A by A. blazei were discussed. This review could provide a reference for the efficient synthesis and development of blazeispirol compounds, the research and development of related drugs and functional foods, and the quality improvement of A. blazei and other medicinal and edible fungi resources and derivatives.

Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach is the most widely cultivated mushroom in the world. A. bisporus wet bubble disease is one of the most severe diseases of white button mushrooms and is caused by the fungal pathogen Hypomyces perniciosus . The pathogen causes a drastic reduction in mushroom yield because of malformation and deterioration of the basidiomes. However, the mechanism of the button mushroom's malformation development after infection with H. perniciosus remains obscure. Therefore, to reveal the mechanism of A. bisporus malformation caused by H. perniciosus , the interaction between the pathogen and host was investigated in this study using histopathological, physiological, and transcriptomic analyses. Results showed that irrespective of the growth stages of A. bisporus basidiomes infected with H. perniciosus , the host's malformed basidiomes and enlarged mycelia and basidia indicated that the earlier the infection with H. perniciosus , the more the malformation of the basidiomes. Analyzing physiological and transcriptomic results in tandem, we concluded that H. perniciosus causes malformation development of A. bisporus mainly by affecting the metabolism level of phytohormones (N 6 -isopentenyladenosine, cis-zeatin, and N 6 -[delta 2-isopentenyl]-adenine) of the host's fruiting bodies rather than using toxins. Our findings revealed the mechanism of the button mushroom's malformation development after infection with H. perniciosus , providing a reference for developing realistic approaches to control mushroom diseases. Our results further clarified the interaction between A. bisporus and H. perniciosus and identified the candidate genes for A. bisporus wet bubble disease resistance breeding. Additionally, our work provides a valuable theoretical basis and technical support for studying the interaction between other pathogenic fungi and their fungal hosts., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

The cultivation of Agaricus bisporus was investigated with two commercial strains, A15 and W192. Nitrogen and lignocellulose were analyzed in absolute amounts based on mass balance to accurately compare the degradation efficiency of the compost, and the correlation between the degradation efficiency and extracellular enzyme activity of the mycelium was analyzed. Lignocellulose utilization efficiency positively correlated with mushroom yield. For the same strain, the compost with high lignocellulose content resulted in high utilization efficiency, which increased the yield of A. bisporus . For the same compost, the lignocellulose utilization efficiency of A15 was higher than that of W192. The activities of manganese-dependent peroxidase and β-glucosidase indicated that W192 may have a higher demand for lignin and cellulose. Therefore, a higher yield of W192 was obtained with high-lignocellulose compost. The metabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose in the mycelial growth stage seemed to be conducive to high mushroom yield.

Agaricus sinodeliciosus is a rare wild edible mushroom from northwest China, and grows naturally in mild saline-alkali soil, which is also unusual in mushrooms. A. sinodeliciosus represents a potential model organism for explaining saline-alkali tolerance mechanisms and revealing related physiological processes in mushrooms. Here, we provide a high-quality genome of A. sinodeliciosus . Comparative genomic analyses reveal A. sinodeliciosus has numerous changes to its genome organization after a solitary evolutionary history under saline-alkali environments, such as gene family contraction, retrotransposon expansion and rapid evolution of adaptative genes. Our saline and alkali tolerance tests show that mycelium growth and fruit body formation of this species are effected by mild alkalinity. Transcriptomic analyses reveal that genes involved in carbon and nitrogen utilization, cell stability and fruit body formation of A. sinodeliciosus could be activated under mildly alkaline conditions. In particular, the 'starch and sucrose metabolism', 'biosynthesis of amino acids' and 'phenylpropanoid biosynthesis' pathways are important for mildly alkaline tolerance of A. sinodeliciosus . Like plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, in the rot fungus A. sinodeliciosus , the biosynthesis of intracellular small molecules could be enhanced to counter osmotic and oxidative stresses caused by mild alkalinity, and the biosynthesis of monolignol could be suppressed to increase cell wall infiltrates under mildly alkaline conditions. This research provides an understanding of the genomic evolution and mechanisms of A. sinodeliciosus in tolerance to saline-alkali environments. The A. sinodeliciosus genome constitutes a valuable resource for evolutionary and ecological studies of Agaricus .

Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors (TFs) are widely distributed in eukaryotes and play an important role in biological growth and development. The identification and functional analyses of bHLH genes/proteins in edible mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) have yet to be reported. In the present study, we identified 10 putative bHLH members carrying the conserved bHLH domains. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the 10 AbbHLHs were the closest to sequences of species belonging to 7 different fungal subgroups, which was supported by loop length, intron patterns, and key amino acid residues. The substantial increase after harvest and continuously elevated expression of AbbHLH1 during the development until the disruption of mushroom velum, and the preferential expression in cap and gill tissues suggest the important function of AbbHLH1 in postharvest development of A. bisporus. The relationship of arginine catabolism-related genes with the early stage of postharvest continuing development also was revealed by expression determination. Subcellular localization showed that AbbHLH1 could be localized in nucleus. Importantly, the electrophoretic mobility shift and dual-luciferase reporter assays showed that AbbHLH1 activated the promoters of AbOAT, AbSPDS, and AbSAMDC and suppressed the expression of AbARG, AbUREA, and AbODC, probably for the modulation of arginine catabolism and thus control of postharvest mushroom development. Taken together, the available data provide valuable functional insight into the role of AbbHLH proteins in postharvest mushrooms., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The biosynthesis of dopamine (DA) from L-tyrosine as starting material is an excellent yet challenging strategy. Here we developed a versatile, multi-enzymatic platform for the biocatalytic preparation of DA in a continuous mode with excellent conversion (90 %) and reaction time (45 min). The system exploits the immobilization of a decarboxylase from Bacillus pumilis (Fdc) and a tyrosinase from Agaricus bisporus (Tyr), which were combined to mimic the in-vivo synthesis of DA (both primary and secondary metabolisms) giving rise to an efficient strategy with a considerable reduction of process associated costs and environmental impact. To enhance the system automation, an in-line purification via catch-and-release procedure was added., (© 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

A number of experiments were done to further our understanding of the substrate utilization in button mushroom crops (Agaricus bisporus). An analysis of the degradation of dry matter of the substrate during a crop cycle revealed that for pin formation the upper 1/3rd layer is used, for the production of flush one all layers are involved and for flush two mainly the lower 1/3 layer is used. A reduction in substrate depth leads to a decrease in yield/m2 but an apparent increase in yield per tonne of substrate with a lower mushroom quality. A short daily interruption of the connection between the casing soil with the substrate results in a delay of the first flush. Interruptions with only part of the substrate did not lead to delay in production. Daily interruption of the connection with all or only part of the substrate leads to a shift in yield from flush one to flush two but the total yield remains unchanged. The mycelial biomass in the substrate increases from filling up to pinning, has a steeper increase during flush one, and is levelling off during flush two, indicating that in the period of venting and up to/including flush one, enzymes are secreted by growing hyphae generating nutrients to feed a fixed amount of mushroom biomass for two flushes. A sidewise extension of the substrate (without casing soil, thus not producing mushrooms) showed that the substrate at a distance more than somewhere between 20-50 cm away from the casing soil does not contribute to feeding mushrooms in the first two flushes. The observations are discussed with respect to relevant previous research., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: The use of mushrooms in medicine is quite old and the first report about the use of genus Agaricus in treatment of ulcers occurred in Byzantine period. This mushroom is widely consumed as food, tea, food supplements, as well as nutraceutical and cosmeceutical applications, being cultivated and appreciated in several countries such as Brazil, Korea, Japan and China., Aim of the Study: This study aimed to characterize the chemical profile and the potential gastroprotective effect of hydroalcoholic extract from Agaricus blazei Murill (HEAb)., Materials and Methods: The extract was chemically characterized by elemental analysis, UPLC-QTOF-MS E , Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) techniques to elucidate the metabolites present in the extract. The quantification of phenolic compounds and the in vitro antioxidant activities were performed and the gastroprotective effect of this extract was evaluated against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model. HEAb was administered by gavage at 5, 25 and 50 mg kg -1 and N-acetylcysteine at 300 mg kg -1 (positive control). Furthermore, the pathways of nitric oxide (NO), Cyclic Guanylate Monophosphate (cGMP), prostaglandins (PGs) and the involvement of ATP-sensitive K + Channels were modulated., Results: Mannitol, malic acid, pyroglutamic acid, L-agaritine and L-valine were putatively identified by UPLC-QTOF-MS E in HEAb. In addition, it was possible to identify mannitol by the intense signals in the NMR spectra, being still quantified as the main compound in the extract by HPLC. The contents of total phenols and flavonoids corroborated with the good antioxidant activity of HEAb. This study observed that HEAb at 25 and 50 mg kg -1 had gastroprotection effect demonstrated by the reduction of histopathological parameters and the reduction of mastocytosis in the stomach of mice., Conclusions: In this study was possible to conclude that HEAb has gastroprotective effect related to the involvement of NO and PG pathways in the ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model in mice., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Button mushrooms are widely produced edible basidiomycetes. Commercially, they are cultivated on substrates containing fermented horse manure and chicken feces. Since pharmacologically active substances (PAS) might be introduced into the food chain via animal treatment, their residues may be present in manure used for mushroom growth. Previous studies in plants have demonstrated an uptake of PAS from the agricultural environment. The present study was performed to investigate the presence of PAS in button mushrooms. For analysis, a multi-analyte method for the detection of 21 selected PAS using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry was developed, successfully validated and applied to commercially available button mushrooms. Traces of chloramphenicol were detected in two of 20 samples. Additionally, in a mushroom cultivation experiment an uptake of ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol and praziquantel was conducted. Throughout the whole experiment, praziquantel was present in quantifiable amounts in mushrooms and in high quantities in soil., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Agaricus bitorquis (Quél.) Sacc. Chaidam (ABSC) is a wild edible fungus uniquely found in the Tibet Plateau. ABSC is rich in polysaccharides that are considered biologically active. This study aimed to determine the feasibility of enhancing exopolysaccharide (EPS) production by ABSC in shake flask culture by supplementing the fermentation medium with anthocyanin extract. Different concentrations of Lycium ruthenicum Murr. (LRM) anthocyanin crude extract were tested on ABSC fermentation. The activity of phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), phosphoglucose mutase (PGM), and phosphomannose isomerase (PMI), enzymes presumably involved in EPS synthesis by ABSC, was determined. ABSC transcriptomic profile in response to the presence of anthocyanins during fermentation was also investigated. LRM anthocyanin crude extract (0.06 mg/mL) was most effective in increasing EPS content and mycelial biomass (by 208.10% and 105.30%, respectively, P < 0.01). The activity of PGI, PGM, and PMI was increased in a medium where LRM anthocyanin extract and its main components (proanthocyanidins and petunia anthocyanin) were added. RNA-Seq analysis showed that 349 genes of ABSC were differentially expressed during fermentation in the medium containing anthocyanin extract of LRM; 93 genes were up-regulated and 256 genes down-regulated. From gene ontology enrichment analysis, differentially expressed genes were mostly assigned to carbohydrate metabolism and signal transduction categories. Collectively, LRM anthocyanins extract positively affected EPS production and mycelial biomass during ABSC fermentation. Our study provides a novel strategy for improving EPS production and mycelial growth during ABSC liquid submerged fermentation., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: The optimal use of feed resources must be considered by most livestock farmers. The use of low-cost agricultural by-products and the processing of these materials is one possible solution in this respect. One such compound is edible button mushroom waste (EM), a large amount of which is produced annually in the mushroom production cycle worldwide., Results: Bulk density 100 of EM was smaller than the other groups. These changes also applied to alfalfa for bulk density, which was higher than the replaced waste. The dry matter solubility of EM was higher than that of alfalfa hay, whereas the ash solubility rate for EM was greater compared to alfalfa. Replacing up to 210 g kg -1 alfalfa with EM did not affect the production of purine derivatives, microbial protein, nitrogen excreted in urine and feces, and retained nitrogen, although the organic matter digestibility (OMD) increased, whereas the crude protein digestibility and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) decreased (P < 0.05). Fermentation potential, gas production rate, metabolizable energy and short-chain fatty acids were increased. On replacing up to 210 g kg -1 alfalfa with EM, the diet OMD increased, whereas the crude protein and NDF digestibility decreased (P < 0.05)., Conclusion: EM usage in the experimental diets did not affect the production of purine derivatives, microbial protein, nitrogen excreted in urine and feces, and retained nitrogen. The physical properties, chemical composition and nutritional value of EM, as well as its low cost, show that it can be used as an alternative part of the diet forage in the ruminant's diet. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Imbach is one the most popular species of edible mushrooms in the world because of its taste and nutritional properties. In the research, repeatability of accumulation of bioelements and biomass yield in experimentally chosen in vitro culture medium, was confirmed. The in vitro cultures were conducted on the modified Oddoux medium enriched with bioelements (Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe). The aim of the study was to create an effective method of sampling, which enabled non-invasive monitoring of metals concentrations changes in the medium, during increase of biomass in in vitro cultures. The first, indirect method of sampling was applied. The non-invasive probe (a dipper) for in vitro culture was used; hence, the highest biomass increase and metals accumulation were gained. The method also guaranteed culture sterility. The second method, a direct one, interfered the in vitro culture conditions and growth of mycelium, and as a consequence the lower biomass increase and metals' accumulation were observed. Few cases of contaminations of mycelium in in vitro cultures were observed. The proposed method of non-invasive sampling of the medium can be used to monitor changes in the concentrations of metals in the medium and their accumulation in the mycelium in natural environment. Changes in concentrations of the selected metals over time, determined by the method of atomic absorption spectrometry, made it possible to correlate the obtained results with the specific stages of A. bisporus mycelium development and to attempt to explain the mechanism of sampling metals from the liquid substrate.

Edible mushrooms have been increasingly introduced into the human diet, which has driven research into their functional properties. Thus, Agaricus brasiliensis Murill or Agaricus blazei Murill (ABM) is a species native to the Brazilian biome, whose fruiting body has been used not only for dietary purposes, but also in the development of functional foods or as source of molecules of pharmacological interest. The bioactivity of ABM has been related to the presence of polysaccharides, although the contribution of other metabolites cannot be discharged. This work describes the polysaccharides isolation methodology and preparation of the extracts of ABM and their biological activities. Furthermore, it presents a general outline of its characterizations regarding composition, chemical structure and properties in solution. The ABM and its chemical constituents exhibit several biological activities that support their potential use for prevention or treatment of diseases with inflammatory background, such as cancer, diabetes and atherosclerosis. The mechanism of action of the extracts and polysaccharides from ABM is mainly related to a modulation of immune system response or reduction of inflammatory response. This review shows that the ABM has great potential in the pharmaceutical, biotechnological and food sectors that deserves additional research using standardized products., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In heterothallic basidiomycete fungi, sexual compatibility is restricted by mating types, typically controlled by two loci: PR , encoding pheromone precursors and pheromone receptors, and HD , encoding two types of homeodomain transcription factors. We analysed the single mating-type locus of the commercial button mushroom variety, Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus , and of the related variety burnettii . We identified the location of the mating-type locus using genetic map and genome information, corresponding to the HD locus, the PR locus having lost its mating-type role. We found the mip1 and β-fg genes flanking the HD genes as in several Agaricomycetes, two copies of the β-fg gene, an additional HD2 copy in the reference genome of A. bisporus var. bisporus and an additional HD1 copy in the reference genome of A. bisporus var. burnettii. We detected a 140 kb-long inversion between mating types in an A. bisporus var. burnettii heterokaryon, trapping the HD genes, the mip1 gene and fragments of additional genes. The two varieties had islands of transposable elements at the mating-type locus, spanning 35 kb in the A. bisporus var. burnettii reference genome. Linkage analyses showed a region with low recombination in the mating-type locus region in the A. bisporus var. burnettii variety. We found high differentiation between β-fg alleles in both varieties, indicating an ancient event of recombination suppression, followed more recently by a suppression of recombination at the mip1 gene through the inversion in A. bisporus var. burnettii and a suppression of recombination across whole chromosomes in A. bisporus var. bisporus , constituting stepwise recombination suppression as in many other mating-type chromosomes and sex chromosomes.

Attempts to bio-enrich fungal biomass with an essential trace elements to produce dietary supplements have some tradition and an example is selenium. Lithium salts have medical applications, but safer forms are sought after, and lithiated foods and food supplements may be an alternative. This study evaluated the lithiation of white Agaricus bisporus mushrooms using commercial compost fortified with LiNO 3 and investigated the effects on co-accumulation of trace elements. The fortifications at levels of 1.0, 5.0, 10, 50 and 100 mg·kg -1 dw, resulted in corresponding median increases in mushroom Li concentrations of 0.74, 5.0, 7.4, 19 and 21 mg kg -1 dw, respectively, relative to 0.031 mg kg -1 dw in control mushrooms. The bio-concentration potential for Li uptake decreased at higher levels of fortification, with saturation occurring at 100 mg·kg -1 , and the level of 500 mg kg -1 mycelium failed to produce mushrooms. The compost fortification resulted in up to several hundred-fold enrichment of mushrooms compared to those grown on control compost, underlining their potential therapeutic use. At higher fortification levels, some effects were seen on the co-accumulation of other elements, such as Ag (stems), As, Cd, Cr, Cs, Cu, Hg (stems), Mn, Rb, Sr, U (stems) and Zn; 0.05 <  p < 0.10), but no effects were seen for Ag (caps), Al, Ba, Co, Hg (caps) Ni, Tl, U (caps), and V ( p > 0.05).

Exogenous melatonin application at 0, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 µM retarded cap browning of button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) by 78.35, 31.40, 30.91, 27.17, and 32.50 %, respectively.Mushrooms treated with 100 µM melatonin also had lower weight loss and higher firmness. During the first 5 days of storage at 4 °C, higher H 2 O 2 accumulation may serve as a signal for promoting endogenous melatonin accumulation by triggering the expression of TDC, T5H, SNAT, and ASMT genes, beneficial for preserving membrane integrity. Besides, the higher accumulation of phenols in mushrooms treated with 100 µM melatonin may be ascribed to higher PAL and lower PPO gene expression and enzyme activity. Moreover, higher DPPH scavenging capacity in mushrooms treated with 100 µM melatonin may be ascribed to the higher accumulation of phenols and ascorbic acid., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The release of bioelements from edible mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus, Cantharellus cibarius, and Imleria badia) was examined using in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion to assess their health-promoting potential. The following samples were tested: fresh, frozen, dried in a food dryer, dried in the sun, and lyophilized. The samples were incubated in gastric juice (pepsin, NaCl, HCl) and in intestinal juice (NaHCO 3 , pancreatin, bile salts) with the aim of verifying the bioaccessibility of the bioelements and the digestibility of mushrooms. Four bioelements that are essential for the human body were studied: Mg, Zn, Cu, and Fe., Results: It was found that Mg was extracted in the highest amounts from the sun-dried A. bisporus (1.620 g kg -1 d.w.). In the case of microelements, the lyophilized fruiting bodies of I. badia released Zn in the highest quantities (0.180 g kg -1 d.w.). Lyophilization and sun-drying methods were more advantageous than other methods. Fresh material was a more valuable source of bioelements than frozen material., Conclusion: Our results showed that edible mushrooms have a high content of bioelements that are easily bioaccessible, which indicates their health-promoting properties. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Selenoproteins in selenium (Se)-enriched vegetables play an important role in human health. In this study, three water-soluble selenoproteins PR-Se-1, PR-Se-2 and PR-Se-3 in Agaricus blazei Murrill (ABM) were isolated by anion exchange chromatography, gel filtration chromatography and SDS-PAGE. Sequence analyses performed by HPLC-MS/MS showed that PR-Se-1, a 114024 Da selenoprotein with 1019 amino acids (AAs), is an isoenzyme of isocitrate dehydrogenase. PR-Se-2, a 53983 Da selenoprotein with 508 AAs, is a kind of dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase. PR-Se-3, a 47179 Da selenoprotein with 415 AAs, is a kind d-proline reductase. Se content is high at 26.1 μg/g, and selenocystine is the predominant Se unit in the three selenoproteins. Se content of ABM is 9.15 μg/g, and the organic form of Se accounts for ~81% of total Se content. ABM could be a promising source of Se in Se-poor regions., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Agaricus bisporus secretes siderophore to uptake environmental iron. Siderophore secretion in A. bisporus was enabled only in the iron-free minimal medium due to iron repression of hapX , a transcriptional activator of siderophore biosynthetic genes. Aiming to produce siderophore using conventional iron-containing complex media, we constructed a recombinant strain of A. bisporus that escapes hapX gene repression. For this, the A. bisporus hapX gene was inserted next to the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase promoter (pGPD) in a binary vector, pBGgHg, for the constitutive expression of hapX . Transformants of A. bisporus were generated using the binary vector through Agrobacterium tumefaciens -mediated transformation. PCR and Northern blot analyses of the chromosomal DNA of the transformants confirmed the successful integration of pGPD- hapX at different locations with different copy numbers. The stable integration of pGPD- hapX was supported by PCR analysis of chromosomal DNA obtained from the 20 passages of the transformant. The transformants constitutively over-expressed hapX by 3- to 5-fold and sidD , a key gene in the siderophore biosynthetic pathway, by 1.5- to 4-fold in mRNA levels compared to the wild-type strain (without Fe 3+ ), regardless of the presence of iron. Lastly, HPLC analysis of the culture supernatants grown in minimal medium with or without Fe 3+ ions presented a peak corresponding to iron-chelating siderophore at a retention time of 5.12 min. The siderophore concentrations of the transformant T2 in the culture supernatant were 9.3-fold (-Fe 3+ ) and 8-fold (+Fe 3+ ) higher than that of the wild-type A. bisporus grown without Fe 3+ ions, while no siderophore was detected in the wild-type supernatant grown with Fe 3+ . The results described here demonstrate the iron-independent production of siderophore by a recombinant strain of A. bisporus , suggesting a new application for mushrooms through molecular biological manipulation.

Currently, melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytrytamine) is recognized as a potential scavenger of free radicals. In this study, the effect of exogenous melatonin at various concentrations (0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 mM) on the texture, sensory qualities, and electron leakage in white mushrooms was evaluated at 3 ± 1 °C. It was observed that mushrooms treated with 0.1 mM melatonin were of good quality and their electron leakage was dramatically dampened. The results showed that 0.1 mM melatonin retained a higher adenosine triphosphate level and also prevented the release of cytochrome c into the cytoplasm. More significantly, it prominently inhibited electron leakage by increasing the activities of complexes I and III by the upregulation of AbNdufB9 and AbRIP1. It also regulated respiratory states in mushrooms; delayed the decline of respiratory state 3; enhanced respiratory state 4; boosted the oxidative phosphorylation and efficiency of mitochondria; and ultimately retarded the senescence of the white mushrooms., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The edible coating has been used for covering fruits and vegetables, bringing surface protection, and extending product shelf-life. Due to the outstanding properties, nanomaterials have become a part of the packaging/coating new generation, demonstrating improvements in the barrier capacity of materials starting from construction products to the food industry. In the food industry, on the other hand, Agaricus bisporus mushrooms have a limited shelf-life from 1 to 3 days because of their high respiration rate and enzymatic browning. With the aim to reduce these two parameters and prevent rapid senescence, the objective of this study was to incorporate a natural source of nanomaterials (cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) into a gellan gum-based coating and sprayed the surface of the mushrooms with the coating material. To evaluate the effect of CNCs, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production rate, and color change were recorded during the mushroom storage at 4 ± 1 °C. Results showed that all coatings were able to decrease total color change (ΔE) of mushrooms from 12 to 8 at day 10 when the coating was applied in all samples compared to control. In addition, significant differences were observed in the respiration rate when CNCs were added to the mushrooms. Oxygen consumption results exhibited a 44 mL O 2 /kg · day production at day 5 with 20% CNCs compared to 269 mL O 2 /kg · day observed in noncoated samples. This trend was similarly observed in the carbon dioxide production rate. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: With this research, it was remarkable to see the presence of CNCs in the coating solution reduced the respiration rate and increased the shelf-life of mushrooms. Similar applications can be industrially scaled-up to protect fruits and vegetables by CNCs-based coating or packaging materials. A variety of sustainable materials are available nowadays that serve as packaging matrix, and scientists are working on expanding the compatibility of these nanomaterials. In addition, it has been studied that CNCs enhance the degradation of polymers, an effort that many companies are making to reduce the environmental impact in their products., (© 2021 Institute of Food Technologists®.)

Solid-state fermentation with Agaricus brasiliensis and Agaricus bisporus on whole grain wheat was carried out. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of fermented wheat were determined. The results showed that the maximum values of polyphenols contents in wheat fermented with A. brasiliensis and A. bisporus reached, respectively (3.16 ± 0.21) and (3.93 ± 0.23) mg GAE/g, which were 2.90 and 3.61 times of unfermented control. By employing ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS), 18 kinds of phenolic compounds were identified from fermented wheat. Compared with control, only 4-hydroxy-benzaldehyde was the same compound. It indicated that fermentation with the two fungi changed polyphenols contents and phenolic compounds composition in wheat to a great extent. Among these phenolic compounds, except for 4-hydroxy-benzaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-benzoic acid and β-N-(γ-glutamyl)-4-formylphenylhydrazine, other 15 kinds of phenolic compounds were first identified from mushroom samples (including fruit bodies, mycelia and fermentation products). DPPH radical scavenging capacity, reducing power, ferrous ion chelating ability and inhibition of lipid peroxidation of fermented wheat were significantly stronger than control (P < 0.05)., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of FEMS.)

Obesity has a serious effect on human health. It relates to metabolic syndrome, including the associated disorders such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke and hyperemia. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are important receptors to control fat metabolism in the human body. Because of the safety concerns of synthetic drugs targeting PPARs, ligands from natural sources have drawn interest. Earlier, we have found high PPAR activities in extracts from Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom, WBM). WBM contains a wide range of candidate compounds which could be agonists of PPARs. To identify which compounds are responsible for PPAR activation by WBM extracts, we used fractionation coupled to effect-directed analysis with reporter gene assays specific for all three PPARs for purification and LC/MS-TOF and NMR for compound identification in purified active fractions. Surprisingly, we identified the relatively common dietary fatty acid, linoleic acid, as the main ligand of PPARs in WBM. Possibly, the relatively low levels of linoleic acid in WBM are sufficient and instrumental in inducing its anti-obesogenic effects, avoiding high energy intake and negative health effects associated with high levels of linoleic acid consumption. However, it could not be excluded that a minor relatively potent compound contributes towards PPAR activation, while the anti-obesity effects of WBM may be further enhanced by receptor expression modulating compounds or compounds with completely PPAR unrelated modes of action.

This experiment mainly optimized the extraction technology of Agaricus blazei polypeptide (ABp) and evaluated its protective effect on aging mice. In this study, a novel single component, the M is 3 kD, was isolated and purified from Agaricus blazei. An aging mouse model was established using D-galactose. After the administration of ABp, the contents of total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT), and reactive oxygen species were significantly changed. Through immunofluorescence staining, it was observed that ABp can reduce changes in brain tissue. The differential expression of genes was analyzed by RNA-seq. A total of 295 differentially expressed genes were screened out in the ABp group.RT-qPCR verified important genes and showed that the mRNA expression levels of Hsph1, Trim32, HK1, Hnrnpa1, and Grik5 were significantly increased, and those of ApoE, Atp1a3, Stxbp1, and Mapk8ip1 was significantly decreased. Western blotting showed that the protein expression levels of Keap1 and p53 were significantly lower, while the protein expression levels of Nrf2, HO-1, Hsph1, and Trim32 were significantly higher in the ABP group. ABp played an anti-aging role in an aging mouse model. The specific mechanism of action may be related to the regulation of the expression of the Keap1/Nrf2/P53 signaling pathway and related factors. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The research may contribute to the development of ABp as functional foods or dietary supplements for anti-aging in the future., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Wood and litter degrading fungi are the main decomposers of lignocellulose and thus play a key role in carbon cycling in nature. Here, we provide evidence for a novel lignocellulose degradation strategy employed by the litter degrading fungus Agaricus bisporus (known as the white button mushroom). Fusion of hyphae allows this fungus to synchronize the activity of its mycelium over large distances (50 cm). The synchronized activity has a 13-h interval that increases to 20 h before becoming irregular and it is associated with a 3.5-fold increase in respiration, while compost temperature increases up to 2°C. Transcriptomic analysis of this burst-like phenomenon supports a cyclic degradation of lignin, deconstruction of (hemi-) cellulose and microbial cell wall polymers, and uptake of degradation products during vegetative growth of A. bisporus. Cycling in expression of the ligninolytic system, of enzymes involved in saccharification, and of proteins involved in nutrient uptake is proposed to provide an efficient way for degradation of substrates such as litter., (© 2020 The Authors. Environmental Microbiology published by Society for Applied Microbiology and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Bacterial diseases of the edible white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus caused by Pseudomonas species cause a reduction in crop yield, resulting in considerable economic loss. We examined bacterial pathogens of mushrooms and bacteriophages that target them to understand the disease and opportunities for control. The Pseudomonas tolaasii genome encoded a single type III protein secretion system (T3SS), but contained the largest number of non-ribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS) genes, multimodular enzymes that can play a role in pathogenicity, including a putative tolaasin-producing gene cluster, a toxin causing blotch disease symptom. However, Pseudomonas agarici encoded the lowest number of NRPS and three putative T3SS while non-pathogenic Pseudomonas sp. NS1 had intermediate numbers. Potential bacteriophage resistance mechanisms were identified in all three strains, but only P. agarici NCPPB 2472 was observed to have a single Type I-F CRISPR/Cas system predicted to be involved in phage resistance. Three novel bacteriophages, NV1, ϕNV3, and NV6, were isolated from environmental samples. Bacteriophage NV1 and ϕNV3 had a narrow host range for specific mushroom pathogens, whereas phage NV6 was able to infect both mushroom pathogens. ϕNV3 and NV6 genomes were almost identical and differentiated within their T7-like tail fiber protein, indicating this is likely the major host specificity determinant. Our findings provide the foundations for future comparative analyses to study mushroom disease and phage resistance.

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic metal occurring in the environment naturally. Almond mushroom (Agaricus brasiliensis) is a well-known cultivated edible and medicinal mushroom. In the past few decades, Cd accumulation in A.brasiliensis has received increasing attention. However, the molecular mechanisms of Cd-accumulation in A. brasiliensis are still unclear. In this paper, a comparative transcriptome of two A.brasiliensis strains with contrasting Cd accumulation and tolerance was performed to identify Cd-responsive genes possibly responsible for low Cd-accumulation and high Cd-tolerance. Using low Cd-accumulating and Cd-tolerant (J77) and high Cd-accumulating and Cd-sensitive (J1) A.brasiliensis strains, we investigated 0, 2 and 5 mg L-1 Cd-effects on mycelium growth, Cd-accumulation and transcriptome revealed by RNA-Seq. A total of 57,884 unigenes were obtained. Far less Cd-responsive genes were identified in J77 mycelia than those in J1 mycelia (e.g., ABC transporters, ZIP Zn transporter, Glutathione S-transferase and Cation efflux (CE) family). The higher Cd-accumulation in J1 mycelia might be due to Cd-induced upregulation of ZIP Zn transporter. Cd impaired cell wall, cell cycle, DNA replication and repair, thus decreasing J1 mycelium growth. Cd-stimulated production of sulfur-containing compounds, polysaccharides, organic acids, trehalose, ATP and NADPH, and sequestration of Cd might be adaptive responses of J1 mycelia to the increased Cd-accumulation. DNA replication and repair had better stability under 2 mg L-1 Cd, but greater positive modifications under 5 mg L-1 Cd. Better stability of DNA replication and repair, better cell wall and cell cycle stability might account for the higher Cd-tolerance of J77 mycelia. Our findings provide a comprehensive set of DEGs influenced by Cd stress; and shed light on molecular mechanism of A.brasiliensis Cd accumulation and Cd tolerance., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The presence of antibiotic residues in the food chain may pose a serious risk to human health. Locating and evaluating new sources of consumer exposure to antibiotic residues in food is a very important element of health protection. The possibility of doxycycline uptake from the substrate for mushroom cultivation by the white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) fruit body was investigated. Mushrooms were experimentally cultivated on substrate contaminated with 8 different doxycycline concentrations in substrate and analyte concentrations in mushroom samples were measured using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography - triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) The obtained results clearly indicated that doxycycline transfers from contaminated substrate to mushrooms at concentrations ranging from 0.87 to 72.3 µg/kg, depending on substrate contamination concentration level and order of harvesting., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

An improved understanding of imidacloprid (IMI) metabolism and accumulation in casing soil or compost-mushroom systems will help to optimise the safe use of IMI for agricultural pest control in Agaricus bisporus cultivation. In this study, the dissipation, metabolites and accumulation of IMI in casing soil or compost-A. bisporus systems were investigated. The results show that the IMI dissipation half-lives at doses of 10 and 50 mg kg -1 were 65 d and 59 d in casing soil and 6.6 d and 6.2 d in compost, respectively during the cultivation period. Three IMI metabolites were observed in casing soil during cultivation of mushrooms. Urea-imidacloprid (IMI-urea) was a major metabolite, accounting for more than 59%. In compost, the main metabolite in the first 5 days was IMI-urea, from 5 to 10 days olefin-imidacloprid (IMI-ole) and 6-chloronicotinic acid (6-CNA) were both the most prominent compounds, and after 10 days 6-CNA alone. At 50 mg kg -1 dose, IMI and the metabolites (IMI-urea, IMI-ole) were detected in the fruiting body with IMI applied to casing soil and only the metabolite 6-CNA was detected in fruiting body with IMI applied to compost. The bio concentration factors (BCFs) of IMI-ole and IMI-urea were higher than of IMI and 6-CNA, and the BCFs had no obvious relationship with log K ow . Furthermore, the potential dietary risk of IMI in A. bisporus was acceptable when application rates in casing soil or compost was up to 50 mg kg -1 . Our study supports a safe use of IMI as agricultural pest control in A. bisporus cultivation., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no competing financial interests., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The button mushroom Agaricus bisporus is an economically important crop worldwide. Many aspects of its cultivation are well known, except for the precise biological triggers for its fructification. By and large, for most basidiomycete species, nutrient availability, light and a drop in temperature are critical factors for fructification. A. bisporus deviates from this pattern in the sense that it does not require light for fructification. Furthermore its fructification seems to be inhibited by a self-generated factor which needs to be removed by microorganisms in order to initiate fruiting. This review explores what is known about the morphogenesis of fruiting initiation in A. bisporus , the microflora, the self-inhibitors for fruiting initiation and transcription factors involved. This information is subsequently contrasted with an overall model of the regulatory system involved in the initiation of the formation of primordia in basidiomycetes. The comparison reveals a number of the blank spots in our understanding of the fruiting process in A. bisporus .

Agaricus bitorquis (Quél.) Sacc. Chaidam (ABSC), is a kind of rare edible macrofungi with a variety of biological ingredients, especially its polysaccharides. However, the low yield limits the popularity and promotion of rare edible macrofungi as well as its macrofungi polysaccharides. Hence, developing a positive and effective cultivation method is of great importance. Herein, an efficient ultrasonic (US) stimulation strategy was developed to improve mycelial growth and exopolysaccharides (EPS) biosynthesis from ABSC in submerged cultivation without light. A time design was employed to illustrate the effect of various process parameters including duration, starting point and times of US irradiation on ABSC productivity. 5 min US treatment for once upon ABSC after fermentation for 48 h could significantly improve EPS production and mycelia growth by above 26% and 15.03%, respectively. Furthermore, six times of 5 min US treatment could make the amount of EPS reach 218.78 ± 17.09 mg/g, which was 2.52-fold higher than that of the control. Moreover, the enhanced effect induced by US was further expounded by fermentation kinetics. Besides, the US treatment could increase mycelia permeability, change structure and reduce mycelial diameter to promote mass transfer, resulting in the improvement of EPS production and mycelia accumulation. The results demonstrated that the present proposed US intensification approach could be useful to boost up the fermentation of ABSC, which possibly applied to yield increase and fermentation product acquisition of macrofungi., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

New species of medicinal mushrooms have emerged over the past several decades, such as the Sun mushroom, Agaricus subrufescens. Horticultural improvements are required to shift its cultivation from small-scale local production to large-scale international production. The research reported here evaluated the agronomic behavior and the chemical characteristics of the Sun mushroom as a function of i) nutritional supplementation ii) ruffling of the casing layer and iii) the temperature management on the primordia induction and reduction of the crop cycle. Supplementation was beneficial for yield, unit mushroom weigh and decrease in time to first harvest. Supplementation improved biological efficiency with Champfood providing a yield increase of 15% over the non-supplemented compost. Among the supplements only Promycel increased the individual mushroom weight. Ruffling overall improved the yield in the 2 nd and 4 th flush. Already biological efficiency was greater by 21%. The highest yield harvested in any single day in the crop occurred in 3 rd flush with the amount of 2.484 kg of mushrooms per m 2 for the rapid induction method. Still the biological efficiency was not significantly affected by the mushroom induction temperature method. Only the fat content of the mushrooms was positively affected by the rapid induction of primordia. Champfood supplement promotes a reduction in the value of earliness and an increase of 1 st flush yield. The ruffling technique provided an increase in biological efficiency due to the great number of mushrooms harvested. Rapid primordia induction allowed the crop cycle to end 3 days earlier than the slow primordia induction, providing a higher production rate.

Endophytism is one of the widely explored phenomena related to orchids and fungi. Endophytic fungi assist plants by supplementing nutrient acquisition, and synthesis of plant growth regulators. Vanda cristata is an epiphytic orchid that has a great diversity of endophytic fungi. Endophytic fungi were isolated from roots, stems, and leaves of V. cristata and identified by both morphological and molecular study. Furthermore, the isolated endophytic fungi were subjected to auxin synthesis, phosphate solubilization, ammonia synthesis, and elicitor growth test for understanding their growth-promoting effect in a qualitative and quantitative manner. Altogether, 12 different endophytic fungi were isolated from roots, stems, and leaves of V. cristata of which most species belonged to Ascomycota. Unidentified II fungi were found to be most effective for auxin synthesis and phosphate solubilization while Agaricus bisporous and Mycolepto discus were most effective for ammonia synthesis. We have tested the plant growth-promoting activity of the twelve isolated endophytic fungi on Cymbidium aloifolium protocorms (12 weeks old). All the endophytic fungi showed growth-promoting activity. Plant growth of Cymbidium aloifolium was found higher on the MS medium supplemented with all fungal elicitors. Fungal elicitor CVS4, however, showed the highest plant growth-promoting activity toward C. aloifolium .

Agaricus blazei , a type of edible straw-rotting mushroom with somewhat sweet taste and fragrance of almonds, has attracted considerable scientific and practical attention. High-throughput Illumina PE150 and PacBio RSII platform were employed to generate a genomic sequence. De novo assembly generated 36 contigs with 38,686,133 bp in size, containing 10,119 putative predicted genes. Additionally, we also studied transcriptional regulation of the mycelia and the primordia for exploration of genes involved in fruiting body formation. Expression profiling analysis revealed that 2,164 genes were upregulated in mycelia and 1,557 in primordia. Functional enrichment showed that differentially expressed genes associated with response to stress, ribosome biogenesis, arginine biosynthesis, and steroid biosynthesis pathway were more active in fruiting body. The genome and transcriptome analysis of A. blazei provide valuable sequence resources and contribute to our understanding of genes related to the biosynthesis pathway of polysaccharide and benzaldehyde, as well as the fruiting body formation., Competing Interests: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Yuan-Ping Lu et al.)

Depression is the most common form of mental illness and the major cause of disability worldwide. Symptoms of depression, including feelings of intense sadness and hopelessness, may occur after a specific event or in response to a gradual decline in health and functional status, often associated with aging. Current therapies for treating these symptoms include antidepressant drugs, counseling and behavioral therapy. However, antidepressant drugs are associated with mild to severe adverse effects, which has prompted the need for better treatment options. Medicinal mushrooms are valuable sources of food and medicine and are increasingly being used as supplements or as alternative medicines in standard healthcare. Numerous studies have provided insights into the neuroprotective effects of medicinal mushrooms, which are attributed to their antioxidant, anti-neuroinflammatory, cholinesterase inhibitory and neuroprotective properties. In this review, we comprehensively examine the role of these medicinal mushrooms in the treatment of depression. However, to apply these natural products in clinical settings, the therapeutic agent needs to be properly evaluated, including the active ingredients, the presence of synergistic effects, efficient extraction methods, and stabilization of the active ingredients for delivery into the body as well as crossing the blood-brain barrier., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

Agaricus bisporus mannose binding protein (Abmb) demonstrates permeability to epithelial monolayer barrier of the intestine, resistance to gastrointestinal tract conditions and to proteolysis therefore it holds potential as a drug carrier for oral route administration. Abmb also display antiproliferative activity to breast cancer cells and stimulation of immune system thus could potentially be also developed for therapeutic purpose. It is not immunogenic or toxic thereby safe for use. In this paper we further provide evidence that Abmb also lacks of agglutinating activity despite sharing high structural homology to lectins. Abmb is thereby the only mannose specific binding protein that is not member of lectin family. This evidence provides further support on the use of Abmb as pharmaceutical or medicinal agent. Its molecular globularity that may contribute to its lack of agglutination capacity was also evaluated., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Innovative approaches to develop flavors with high sensory appeal are critical in encouraging increased consumer preference and adoption of low sodium foods. Gas chromatography-olfactometry, coupled with stable isotope dilution assays and sensory experiments, led to the identification of the odorants responsible for an enhancement in saltiness perception of chicken broth prepared with thermally treated enzymatically hydrolyzed mushroom protein and cysteine, then reacted under kitchen-like cooking conditions. Comparative aroma extract dilution analysis revealed 36 odorants with flavor dilution factors between a range of 1 and 256. Sixteen odorants were quantitated and odor activity values (OAVs) calculated. Important odorants included 2-furfurylthiol (coffee, OAV 610), 1-(2-furyl)ethanethiol (meaty, OAV 78), 3-sulfanylpentan-2-one (catty, OAV 42), sotolon (maple, OAV 20), indole (animal, OAV 8), 2-methyl-3-(methyldithio)furan (meaty, OAV 3), and p -cresol (barnyard, OAV 1). An odor simulation model was evaluated in two consumer sensory studies. These studies confirmed that the addition of the aroma model increased the perceived saltiness of low sodium chicken broth ( p < 0.05).

Edible mushrooms constitute an appreciated nutritional source for humans due to their low caloric intake and their high content in carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fibre, phenolic compounds, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. It has been also demonstrated that mushrooms have health-promoting benefits. Cultivation of mushrooms, especially of the most common species Agaricus bisporus, represents an increasingly important food industry in Europe, but with a direct consequence in the increasing amount of by-products from their industrial production. This review focuses on collecting and critically investigating the current data on the bioactive properties of Agaricus bisporus as well as the recent research for the extraction of valuable functional molecules from this species and its by-products obtained after industrial processing. The state of the art regarding the antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-allergenic and dietary compounds will be discussed for novel applications such as nutraceuticals, additives for food or cleaning products., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In the present study, the conditions for Azotobacter chroococcum fermentation using Agaricus bisporus wastewater as the culture medium were optimized. We analyzed the total number of living A. chroococcum in the fermentation broth, using multispectral imaging flow cytometry. Single-factor experiments were carried out, where a Plackett-Burman design was used to screen out three factors from the original six processing factors wastewater solubility, initial pH, inoculum size, liquid volume, culture temperature, and rotation speed that affected the total number of viable A. chroococcum. The Box-Behnken response surface method was used to optimize the interactions between the three main factors and to predict the optimal fermentation conditions. Factors significantly affecting the total number of viable A. chroococcum, including rotation speed, wastewater solubility, and culture temperature, were investigated. The optimum conditions for A. chroococcum fermentation in A. bisporus wastewater were a rotation speed of 200 rpm, a solubility of 0.25%, a culture temperature of 26°C, an initial pH of 6.8, a 5% inoculation volume, a culture time of 48 h, and a liquid volume of 120 mL in a 250 mL flask. Under these conditions, the concentration of total viable bacteria reached 4.29 ± 0.02 ✕ 10 7 Obj/mL A. bisporus wastewater can be used for the cultivation of A. chroococcum.

Conquering rapid postripeness and deterioration of Agaricus bisporus is quite challenging. We previously observed that methyl jasmonate (MeJA) pretreatment postponed the deterioration of A. bisporus , but the mechanism is unknown. Here, a nontargeted metabolomics analysis by ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) revealed that MeJA increased the synthesis of malate by inhibiting the decomposition of fumarate and cis -aconitate. MeJA maintained energy supply by enhancing ATP content and energy charge level and improving hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activities as well. These results promoted ATP supply by maintaining glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway. In addition, we revealed that the delayed deterioration was attributed to MeJA treatment which stimulated the energy status of A. bisporus by reducing the respiration rate and nutrient decomposition, thus maintaining energy production. Our results provide a new insight into the role of MeJA treatment in delaying deterioration of A. bisporus through ATP production and supply.

A recently discovered lectin-like protein from mushroom tyrosinase designated as orf239342 inhibits proliferation of the MCF-7 breast cancer cells. This characteristic is likely derived from its ability to recognize sugar entity on the cell surface. Thereby, the binding specificity of orf239342 to sugars was studied. Orf239342 was found to bind specifically to mannose upon analysis with the surface plasmon resonance technique. Finally, our in vitro study showed that mannose impeded orf239342 ability to inhibit proliferation of the MCF-7 breast cancer cells, providing further evidence for the mannose binding onto the protein. Our finding is a breakthrough to characterise orf239342 i.e. to define its functioning in the mushroom, association to the tyrosinase, or even possible application in breast cancer therapy. In addition, the finding allows the more appropriate designation of the protein as Agaricus bisporus mannose binding-protein (AbMb)., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The mycoparasitic fungus Hypomyces perniciosus causes wet bubble disease of mushrooms, particularly Agaricus bisporus . The genome of a highly virulent strain of H. perniciosus HP10 was sequenced and compared to three other fungi from the order Hypocreales that cause disease on A. bisporus . H. perniciosus genome is ~44 Mb, encodes 10,077 genes and enriched with transposable elements up to 25.3%. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that H. perniciosus is closely related to Cladobotryum protrusum and diverged from their common ancestor ~156.7 million years ago. H. perniciosus has few secreted proteins compared to C. protrusum and Trichoderma virens , but significantly expanded protein families of transporters, protein kinases, CAZymes (GH 18), peptidases, cytochrome P450, and SMs that are essential for mycoparasitism and adaptation to harsh environments. This study provides insights into H. perniciosus evolution and pathogenesis and will contribute to the development of effective disease management strategies to control wet bubble disease.

Rapid deterioration of postharvest Agaricus bisporus is a serious problem. Measures to improve the shelf-life are of great importance. Therefore, we used a nanocomposite-based packaging material (Nano-PM) containing nano-TiO 2 , nano-SiO 2 , nano-Ag and attapulgite to study its effect on microstructure and energy metabolism of A. bisporus. Nano-PM reduced the oxidation of lipids and proteins by activating antioxidant enzyme activities and inhibiting the accumulation of ROS, thereby maintained high level of energy status. Meanwhile, ATP content and energy charge of A. bisporus in Nano-PM increased through the energy metabolism system. This was attributed to the lower respiration rate and higher mitochondrial respiratory enzyme activities. These results indicated that Nano-PM could maintain the dense and intact microstructure of A. bisporus thus improve its shelf-life., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Agaricus bisporus is in general cultivated on wheat and rice straw in China. However, millet straw is a potential alternative resource for Agaricus bisporus cultivation, but this has hardly been studied. In the present study, the feasibility of millet straw based mushroom production was analyzed by three successive trials. Mature compost demonstrated high quality with total nitrogen, pH, and C/N ratio of 2.0%, 7.5, and 18:1 respectively, which was suitable for mushroom mycelia growth. During composting, 47-50% of cellulose, 63-65% of hemicellulose, and 8-17% lignin were degraded, while 22-27% of cellulose, 14-16% of hemicellulose, and 15-21% of lignin were consumed by A. bisporus mycelia during cultivation. The highest FPUase and CMCase were observed during mushroom flushes. Endo-xylanase had the key role in hemicellulose degradation with high enzyme activity during cultivation stages. Laccase participated in lignin degradation with the highest enzyme activity in Pinning stage followed by a sharp decline at the first flush. Yield was up to 20 kg/m 2 , as this is similar to growth on wheat straw, this shows that millet straw is an effective resource for mushroom cultivation. Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, Deinococcus-Thermus, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria were the dominant phyla, based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing during composting. The key environmental factors dominating bacterial communities of the samples were determined to be pH value, cellulose content, and hemicellulose content for prewetting and premixed phase of basic mixture (P0); moisture content for phase I (PI); and nitrogen content, lignin content, and ash content for phase II (PII), respectively.