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In a less-favored area such as the Sahel, promoting sustainable management, breeding, and conservation of forestry resources would result in improvements for agroforestry systems and food security. A contingent ranking exercise allowed us to estimate the preferences and the values given by the rural population to the attributes that would be comprised in a conservation program. The resulting preferred program is farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) based on the species Adansonia digitata (baobab), with plantation, stone bunds, or tassa, and selected or bred seeds. The proposed actions to improve the tree density and the seed quality were highly valued by the respondents. Nevertheless, no clear differences were found between tassa and stone bunds, or FMNR and plantation. The main effects of the program, according to the surveyed population, include an increase in crop production and soil conservation, and higher income from tree products. This study allowed us to identify the program that would provide the greatest well-being for farmers, since it would allow them to simultaneously improve both the production of their crops and the production of the woody food species. It was shown that farmers were particularly willing to contribute to a program based on baobab, mainly because its products are used for food in the home and can be sold in markets. In this sense, the yield and production of the system would be improved by increasing the number of baobab trees. Farmers would contribute to this production system and would be willing to invest sustainable effort in the long term. The conservation and breeding program can be directed at conserving and propagating the genetic resources of A. digitata in an initial phase, selecting trees with good production, growth, and adaptation characteristics.

Ethnomycological information was gathered by conducting semi-structured interviews with members of the Amhara, Agew, and Sidama ethnic groups in Ethiopia. A total of 300 individuals were involved in this study. Forest excursions were also undertaken to investigate the habitat and to identify useful wild mushroom species present in the study areas. A total of 24 useful wild mushroom species were identified. Among the three ethnic groups, the Sidama have the most extensive ethnomycological knowledge and over seven vernacular names for useful fungal species were recorded for this group. Collecting mushrooms is common practice among the Sidama and usually carried out by women and children during the main rainy season from June to September. Useful mushrooms are collected in natural forests, plantation forests, grazing areas, home gardens, and swampy areas. In terms of medicinal uses, Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. and Calvatia rubroflava (Cragin) Lloyd. are well-known treatments for wounds and skin disease. Harvest storage of wild mushroom species is unknown. Respondents in the Amhara and Agew ethnic groups were similar in terms of their use and knowledge of mushrooms. Both ethnic groups reported that although wild mushroom species were consumed by their grandparents, they do not eat mushrooms themselves, which could eventually represent a loss of mycological knowledge in these two ethnic groups. Such inconsistency between ethnic groups in terms of their knowledge may also be linked to the social valuation of mushroom resources, which could easily be mitigated by raising awareness. Thus, the baseline information obtained in this study could be useful for further investigations and documentation, and to promote ethnomycological benefits to different ethnic groups in countries with similar settings.

Research on operational programs for the conservation and improvement of forest genetic resources is associated with use and non-use values, given that such research not only generates new knowledge but also incorporates both commercial benefits and benefits related to the conservation of genetic material for reproduction. This article applies a discrete choice experiment that allows analyzing the preferences of Spanish society for operational programs for the breeding and conservation of P. pinaster. Such programs are financed mainly by public research funds, and it would be advisable to include citizens' preferences regarding programs for the conservation and improvement of forest genetic resources. The analysis quantifies the trade-offs between the various characteristics of the program, such as production improvements, biotic and abiotic risks, genetic diversity, and the biodiversity of pine forests. The results show that society is willing to pay for research in these directions, above all research on greater resistance to biotic risks. Likewise, the study shows how research on transgenic forest resources is not socially accepted, thus adding to the arguments in favor of the current prohibition in Spain on marketing this type of forest reproductive material. Finally, considering the current R&D budget and the average tax collection in Spain, the WTP seems to be biased upwards. In this sense, an analysis of individual's response time as a proxy of carelessness was performed.

Shea products in Benin (West Africa) are produced in a low-developed agroindustry, but they are estimated to be the country's third largest export. The nut harvesting and quality guaranteeing in the butter process can only be achieved through improvements in the value chain, thus making it more attractive for stakeholders. The aim of this paper is to provide keys to a better product valorization, obtain a significant increase in household incomes based on shea butter marketing opportunities, and offer competitive products at the local and regional markets. Different markets were designed to catch processors and consumers' preferences for two improved shea products: butter and nuts in Northern Benin. An open-ended contingent valuation (CV) was applied, and the willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to accept (WTA) were estimated by using a typical ordinary least squares (OLS) modelling approach. On local markets in Benin, the color, length, and weight of the nuts, as well as the color, smell, and texture of shea butter significantly influence, respectively, the processors' willingness to accept and the consumers' willingness to pay for a specific quality level. An increase in price would ensure the quality of the shea butter and would be covered by the premium to be paid by consumers. Certification design and the development of shea resources management and conservation programs should include ethnic preferences and consider gender, to avoid reducing women's profits in the shea butter local market.

This study aimed to provide baseline information about wild edible tree species (WETs) through surveying of different ethnic groups in dryland areas in Ethiopia. Here the data about WETs are scant, and WETs status is unexplained under the rampant habitat degradation. Use forms, plant parts used, status, ethnobotanical knowledge, conservation needs as well as those threats affecting WETs were reviewed. The study identified 88 indigenous wild edible plants, of which 52 species were WETs. In most cases, fruits were found as the dominant use part, and they were used as raw but were occasionally cooked and preserved. Roots and bark uses are also reported from Ximenia americana and Racosperma melanoxylon respectively. June, July and August were critical periods observed for food shortage in most of the regions. However, in the Gambella region, food shortages occurred in most months of the year. The respondents in this region suggested that WETs could potentially provide them with enough food to make up for the shortage of food from conventional agricultural crops. From the respondents' perception, Opuntia ficus-indica, Carissa edulis and Ficus vasta were among the most difficult to locate species, and they also received the highest conservation attention. Because of the variety of WETs and existing different threats, a management strategy is required for future conservation, as WETs are vital for the livelihood of local communities and are also necessary to devise a food security strategy for Ethiopia. The lesson obtained could also be useful in other dryland parts in developing countries with similar contexts.

Purpose of Review: This review provides perspectives and insights of forest researchers from four continents representing a range of geo-regions, with examples from diverse and dynamic use of forest products that are undervalued and often misrepresented. A comprehensive discussion of the subject provides special attention to property, tenancy, public goods and access rights to non-wood forest products (NWFP), seen as forest ecosystem services in a framework for forest management decisions. The overall purpose is to provide a logical argument for transitioning to sustainable management of forests for timber and NWFP. Recent Findings: Multifunctional ecosystem-based approaches are transforming our understanding of forests. The prevailing economic relevance of NWFP for trade and sustenance requires their operative integration into forest management. Integration of NWFP will shift a traditional timber-oriented management paradigm towards an inclusive ecosystem forest management approach. We show that the impact of NWFP resources on livelihoods provides multiple benefits to all sectors of global society. Policy and property rights affect the availability and sustainability of the resource, while regulations, restrictions and prohibitions target the sustainable harvest of NWFP under growing demand. Official reporting of production volumes of NWFP is sparse, erratic or inaccurate due to a complex system that is opaque and with inadequately understood value chains, yet research is underway to better understand all NWFP sectors. Summary: A shift from command-and-control forest management to broader governance schemes is observed, yet despite a growing awareness of their importance, NWFP and their potential for a bio-based economy require more research. A conceptual framework for transitioning to sustainable co-production management of timber and NWFP is presented. Such a transition is needed to ensure long-term forest security, health and resilience.

[Aim of study] To elicit the preferences of the mushroom producers in rural areas and of the urban consumers in supermarkets. This allowed us to obtain key information to develop sustainable management and conservation plans in participation with local communities and to contribute assessing the potential economic value of wild mushroom resources. [Study are] Rural areas in the Amhara and Sidama regional states of Ethiopia, and in the capital, Addis Ababa. [Material and methods] A choice experiment following a D-0 design was performed to determine the preferences of the two main stakeholders: mushroom producers in rural areas and urban consumers in Addis Ababa supermarkets. Data were analyzed using a random parameters model. Willingness to pay (demand side) and willingness to accept (supply side) were calculated for different attributes. [Main results] The farmers are willing to be involved as a key participant in sustainable programs if they are compensated for their work in cash by long contracts; they prefer that the collection site is not very far their homes and to collect mushrooms in groups. If more time is spent walking from their homes to the forest, the compensation should increase. Urban consumers want to buy and pay for Ethiopian wild mushrooms and are interested in the sustainable production of mushrooms. [Research highlights] The farmers and consumers surveyed in this study recognized the potential of valuing mushroom resources as a potential way of conserving the forests where the mushrooms grow

Adansonia digitata L. (African baobab) provides a wide range of market products in Niger. These products are highly important in the traditional dishes and are also a cultural asset for the Nigerien households. The main objective of this study is to assess the local consumers’ preferences for marketed baobab products and to infer key elements in order to design conservation strategies at local and national levels. A total of 432 consumers were surveyed in eight rural and four urban markets in Niger. Results from a contingent valuation application show that 61% of the consumers are willing to pay a mean of 24.7% above the current market prices. These funds would favor the implementation of a conservation and improvement program for assuring the availability of baobab products in the market and conserving the baobab resources. Promoting health and food security based on the development of these products will likely also play a role in favoring the conservation of the species.

[Aim of study], Edible products from tree species were identified in Burkina Faso and their contribution to the diet in the lean season was assessed. The main threats affecting most consumed food tree species were also documented. Area of study: Six villages across two phytogeographic regions of Burkina Faso. [Material and methods], Focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews, including a 7-day dietary intake recall targeting women; semi-structured interviews targeting key male informants. [Main results], The number of edible tree products consumed was found to vary according to phytogeographic region and ethnic group. A few tree species played a disproportionally greater role in the diet and were characterized by very high frequency of consumption by the majority of households in both phytogeographic regions and across ethnicities: Adansonia digitata, Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa. These species are not critically endangered at country level but they are perceived as scarcely available at local level. Considering that the main threats on priority tree species (fires, drought, pest and diseases) vary across regions, to maintain sustainable sources of nutrients in the landscape, mitigation measures should be diversified and adapted to local pressures. [Research highlights], Priorities for conservation are emerging clearly, but research efforts should also target underutilized tree species for their potential to diversify nutrient-poor diets.

Aim of study Indigenous woody species play an important role as a complement on the diet of rural populations in Niger, especially in periods of food scarcity. However, these species are nowadays overexploited and management programmes are necessary to conserve them. In order to design a conservation programme for edible woody species, this paper presents a sociological analysis about the use of edible woody species and their products during shortage periods in Niger. Area of study Four villages in two distinct agro-ecological regions were selected to conduct structured enquiries based on focus group discussions and surveys with key informants. Material and Methods Perceptions of the conservation status of these species were identified; as well the factors affecting food values, perceptions, management and collection practices. Main results Results show that B. senegalensis was a staple food in the driest areas, and M. crassifolia was used for fodder and human consumption in the most critical situations. The local communities related the drivers of species conservation status specific to the agro-ecological regions, and gender and ethnic differences were also identified. Research highlights Understanding these factors constitutes a first step towards adaptive management strategies for the conservation of woody food species in rural communities of Niger. � 2016 INIA.

Black poplar (Populus nigra L.) is a keystone species for riparian ecosystems in Europe. We analysed the structure of genetic diversity of 17 populations from 11 river valleys that are part of seven catchment systems (Danube, Ebro, Elbe, Po, Rhine, Rhone, and Usk) in Europe, in relation to geography and river management. In total, 1069 trees were genotyped using AFLP and microsatellite markers. The trees had an observed heterozygosity of 0.74 (range 0.59-0.82 across microsatellite loci). The majority (72.6-90.8%, depending on the marker system) of the genetic variation was present within populations. Most pairs of populations along a river were relatively similar (pairwise Fst 0.042-0.135 based on AFLP, 0.002-0.037 based on microsatellites). Overall population differentiation among rivers was considerable (Fst among populations was 0.268 based on AFLP, and 0.081 based on microsatellites). An analysis using the program Structure indicated that all populations recruited plants from several clusters. Geographically close populations tended to draw from the same Structure clusters, including populations from adjacent catchments. The Danube and Inn populations in Austria were genetically more similar to the Vltava population (Elbe catchment) in Czech Republic than the geographically more distant populations along the Tisa and Prut rivers of the Danube catchment in Ukraine. This indicates that gene flow and dispersal takes place across fairly large distances and between river catchments. Consistent with this result, a principal coordinate analysis of genetic distances among individual trees based on AFLP bands showed large overlap of populations, although the French and Spanish samples formed distinct clusters, and the samples from the Ticino (Italy) were at an intermediate position. The extent of clonal duplication was highest along regulated rivers, with e.g.;41% clonal duplication along the Rhine in The Netherlands (up to 32 trees for one genet). The Usk contained a ma

Eleven laboratories have collaborated to study chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation in black poplar (Populus nigra L.) across Europe in order to improve our understanding of the location of glacial refugia and the subsequent postglacial routes of recolonisation. A common analysis based on the restricted fragments produced by five primer pairs was used to determine the cpDNA haplotype of 637 samples obtained from genebank collections established in nine European countries. Haplotype 2 was particularly common and was found in 46% of the non-hybrid samples. A total of 81 non-hybrid chloroplast variants were detected. Three haplotypes (from four trees believed to originate from Eastern Europe) clustered together and were very different from the rest of the samples. The remaining samples were divided into two groups, one of which had a largely eastern distribution and samples from the other group were mostly located in the west. This, along with the fact that Spain in the southwest and Austria and Italy in the southeast had high diversity, suggest that there were ice age refugia of black poplar in both southwestern (Spain) and southeastern Europe (Italy and/or Balkan). Results also indicate that the Pyrenees formed a significant barrier, since only 7 of the 45 haplotypes in Spain exist elsewhere in Europe. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Populus nigra L. is a pioneer tree species of riparian ecosystems that is threatened with extinction because of the loss of its natural habitat. To evaluate the existing genetic diversity of P. nigra within ex-situ collections, we analyzed 675 P. nigra L. accessions from nine European gene banks with three amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and five microsatellite [or simple sequence repeat (SSR)] primer combinations, and 11 isozyme systems. With isozyme analysis, hybrids could be detected, and only 3% were found in the gene bank collection. AFLP and SSR analyses revealed effectively that 26% of the accessions were duplicated and that the level of clonal duplication varied from 0% in the French gene bank collection up to 78% in the Belgian gene bank collection. SSR analysis was preferred because AFLP was technically more demanding and more prone to scoring errors. To assess the genetic diversity, we grouped material from the gene banks according to topography of the location from which the accessions were originally collected (river system or regions separated by mountains). Genetic diversity was expressed in terms of the following parameters percentage of polymorphic loci, observed and effective number of alleles, and Nei's expected heterozygosity or gene diversity (for AFLP). Genetic diversity varied from region to region and depended, to some extent, on the marker system used. The most unique alleles were identified in the Danube region (Austria), the Rhône region (France), Italy, the Rijn region (The Netherlands), and the Ebro region (Spain). In general, the diversity was largest in the material collected from the regions in Southern Europe. Dendrograms and principal component analysis resulted in a clustering according to topography. Material from the same river systems, but from different countries, clustered together. The genetic differentiation among the regions (Fst/Gst) was moderate. © Springer-Verlag 2003.

The genetic variability and migration pathways of Pinus pinaster after glaciation in the Iberian peninsula was studied by means of 18 loci from 12 natural populations of the species. The analysis showed the existence of three groups of populations with different levels of diversity and patterns of recolonization. The southern Iberian group displays a high level of diversity, with a stepping-stone model of variation. The presence of rare alleles in this group and their position in the phylogenetic tree suggest the existence of refugia during glaciations in this zone. The eastern Iberian group also has high levels of diversity but is clearly separate from the first group based on their genetic distances. The Atlantic group displays a low level of diversity that could be interpreted as a rapid recolonization of the entire area by the Eastern group that has not yet developed to a divergence in this area. The southern Iberian range is indicated to be the dispersal centre of the species after the last glaciation.

In vitro-induced cork oak (Quercus suber L.) embryos from anther cultures proved to be of haploid origin both by enzyme and RAPD gene marker analysis. The problem considered was to ascertain if embryo cultures originated either from a single haploid cell, from a microspore, or from multiple haploid cells. Therefore, a heterozygotic gene was searched for in the parent tree. The gene coding for shikimate dehydrogenase (SKDH1) proved to be heterozygous in the parental tree, and subsequently, these allozymes were screened for the embryos induced in anther cultures from the same tree. Only haploid embryos were found, confirming the microspore origin. Different genotypes were not identified inside each anther by isozyme analysis, probably because of selective pressure for one embryo early in development, but both parental SKDH1 alleles were found in the embryos of different anthers. The banding patterns detected by RAPD markers permitted the identification of multiple microspore origins inside each anther.

Two elm taxa occur naturally in the Iberian Peninsula the Field elm (Ulmus minor) and the Wych elm (U. glabra). In addition, a third taxon, the foreign Siberian elm (U. pumila), was probably introduced in the 16th century as an ornamental tree and has spread spontaneously throughout the Peninsula. The natural hybridization between U. minor and U. pumila produced new individuals whose morphological traits appear to be mixed. Ulmus pumila, as well as its hybrids, has a high resistance to Dutch elm disease (DED). For this reason, it is commonly used in breeding programmes. Extensive hybridization and the high mortality produced by the last DED epidemic have endangered the conservation of the native elm. In this study, isozyme analyses are used to characterize the taxa U. minor and U. pumila. Siberian elms from Spain and China are compared with the native U. minor. Siberian elm produces isozyme patterns that completely differentiate it from U. minor. Three loci are completely different between the species 6Pgd2, Mdh1 and Prx2. Isozyme markers can also be used to distinguish native elms from the hybrids that have evolved for generations.

Eighteen spontaneous populations of cork oak (Quercus suber) from Spain (14), Portugal (1), Morocco (1) and Italy (2), were surveyed at 14 loci from 12 enzyme systems. Percentage of polymorphic loci (64%), mean number of alleles (2.07), and mean expected heterozygosity (0.158) values were within the ranges described for the genus. Populations from the central range of the species and from peripheral areas were evaluated, and differences between these two kinds were assessed. Significant lower diversity (number of alleles and expected heterozygosity) was found for the most isolated and small size populations in contrast to central forests, showing the existence of mechanisms maintaining the levels of diversity even in some isolated stands. Interpopulation diversity (F(st)) is 3.3%, indicating extensive gene flows or recent postglacial expansion. A possible recent bottleneck is detected in two populations by comparing actual with expected heterozygosity from the number of detected alleles.

Fifteen populations of Pinus halepensis from Spain were analysed employing 5 polymorphic loci by starch gel electrophoresis. A multilocus approach was used, in order to detect changes in the level of polymorphism and to reveal the pattern recolonization of the species in a North-South direction, leading to a loss of variability among the island and marginal populations. Fifteen populations of Pinus halepensis from Spain were analyzed employing 5 polymorphic loci by starch gel electrophoresis. A multilocus approach was used, in order to detect changes in the level of polymorphism and to reveal the pattern of variation of the species. The multilocus analyses show that large differences exist when island, inland and marginal populations are considered. These differences are quite high in terms of the effective number of genotypes, and in subpopulation differentiation. The multilocus differentiation is mainly caused by relations of allelic frequencies among populations, the most likely cause being that, by chance, alleles were associated differently in the refugia of the species. The population differentiation is large in comparison with that observed in other conifers (FST = 0.11; CFST = 0.17). The canonical variate corresponding to the largest differentiation among populations is positively correlated to the frequency of the most common allele of Mdh4 and Aco and negatively to the frequency of Hk and Pgm2. A clear pattern of variation related to latitude and longitude has been detected by the high correlation with the first canonical variate (r = -0.907 and r = -0.832 respectively). In conclusion, the clinal variation could be attributed to a recolonization of the species in a North-South direction, leading to a loss of variability among the island and marginal populations.