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Abstract Population loss in rural areas is rapidly increasing in high‐income countries, raising concerns and debate, given its socio‐economic consequences. Despite the evident environmental dimension of the phenomenon, ecological knowledge has been neglected in the analysis of actions aiming to reverse rural depopulation. Particularly, cultural landscapes reflect memories of ecological processes that have configured current patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Based on ecological principles, we present a conceptual procedure to assess the behaviour of social–ecological systems subjected to depopulation, projecting their expected trajectories through time within a framework defined jointly by demographic and environmental–ecological dimensions (in our case, biodiversity, carbon storage, pollution control, water resources and soil conservation). We applied this procedure to various alternative interventions designed to confront depopulation in Spain: (1) non‐intervention, (2) maintenance of the historical landscape configuration, (3) active conservation, (4) extensive, sustainable land use and (5) intensified land use. We conclude that extensive, sustainable land use better optimizes criteria of demographic consolidation, environmental impact, resilience and implementation of actions confronting depopulation. We highlight the need to incorporate ecological knowledge into the assessment and application of actions confronting rural depopulation. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Abstract Specialization remains as a controversial and ambiguous term in ecology. Although it has been usually measured using a dichotomic and simplified classification of specialists and generalists, its nature is by far more complex. In the context of biotic interactions, assigning these two labels is usually based on the number of interacting partners (one or few vs. many). Here, we provide a more precise, quantitative, and objective interpretation of the specialization phenomenon combining three different dimensions (specificity, preference, and selectivity) that offer complementary information to quantify specialization. Hence, partner richness is a metric associated with the specificity, Simpson's evenness is related to the preference and d′ index to the selectivity of the biotic interactions. Consequently, we propose a 3D specialization space combining these three metrics which allows to identify the degree of biotic specialization fleeing from its simplified historical interpretation. The proposed space was subsequently evaluated in five natural interacting systems (host–parasite, plant–ant, plant–pollinator, plant–seed disperser, and mycobiont–cyanobacteria) using available data comprising 116 networks with quantitative observations. The results indicate the prevalence of a lax specialization, where most organisms tended to show low values in at least one of the metrics. Predominantly, observations showed high values of specificity and low values of preference and selectivity. This relaxed specialization provides advantages of being specialized, without sentencing it when being too tight. The implementation of this framework provides a useful tool that allows to identify specialization in a more objective, integrative, and universal way for future specialization studies.

IntroductionThis study aimed to analyze the variations in pre- and post-competitive anxiety and self-confidence considering match outcomes, the performance according to the result and the correlation among performance and psychological variables.MethodsThe sample consisted on 12 matches in which 11 high-level padel players from Finland (top 24) voluntarily participated. CSAI-2R and STAI-S were used to assess psychological variables and technical-tactical performance was evaluated by a certified padel coach.ResultsLosing players presented higher cognitive (p = .004), somatic (p = .020) and state (p = .001) anxiety and lower selfconfidence (p = .014), and winning players showed higher state anxiety (p = .022), after than before the matches. Post-match, winning players exhibited higher self-confidence (p = .015) than losing players. Winning players made more winners (p = .010) than losing players. There are direct correlations between unforced errors and post-state anxiety (p = .015), unforced errors and state anxiety (p = .009) and winners and cognitive anxiety (p = .033), in winning players; between generators of forced error and post-cognitive anxiety (p = .034), forced errors and cognitive anxiety in losing players (p = .001). There are indirect correlations between forced errors and pre-cognitive anxiety (p = .009), winners and somatic anxiety (p = .046), unforced errors and state anxiety (p = .042) in losing players.DiscussionThe outcomes imply the need for intervention programs to equip players, especially those facing defeat, with tools for anxiety management and self-confidence enhancement. Likewise, coaches are advised to incorporate exercises that promote the occurrence of winners.

El pádel ha tenido un crecimiento exponencial en las últimas décadas y es practicado por jugadores de diferentes edades y niveles competitivos, sin embargo, nunca se han analizado las características de las palas que utilizan. Por ello, el objetivo del estudio fue analizar las características de las palas utilizadas por jugadores de pádel amateur masculino según su experiencia, el número de horas de práctica por semana, su lado habitual de juego en pista y su lateralidad. Un total de 873 jugadores masculinos amateur ( Edad: 29.99 años;  Peso: 78.71 kg;  Altura: 177.51 cm) participaron de forma voluntaria, cumplimentando un cuestionario elaborado ad-hoc. Los resultados indican que los jugadores de pádel amateur masculino suelen utilizar palas compuestas por fibra de carbono (73.2 %), con un peso de entre 351 y 370 gramos (60 %). Además, la experiencia de los jugadores y el número de horas de juego por semana se asocian al número de overgrips y a la composición de la pala. El lado de juego de los jugadores en pádel amateur masculino se asocia a la forma de la pala y la mano dominante se asocia a la composición de la pala. Estos hallazgos son muy novedosos pues pueden ayudar a los jugadores de pádel amateur masculino a elegir sus palas.

The aim of this study was to analyze the lob in professional padel, taking into account sex, the player’s side of play, the direction of the lob and the efficiency of the lob. For this purpose, 2063 lobs (933 in men’s and 1130 in women’s) corresponding to 10 matches of the 2024 season of the Premier Padel circuit were analyzed through systematic observation. The results indicated that there is no association between the player who makes the lob according to the side of play in professional padel (p = 0.796) and the category of play (men’s and women’s). The distribution of lobs in these categories, both men’s and women’s, was distributed 50% between both players from the same pair. On the other hand, in men’s professional padel, right-side players made more cross-court lobs (RTC = 3.3), while left-side players made more down-the-middle lobs (RTC = 2.0). In addition, in women’s professional padel, right-side players made more cross-court lobs (RTC = 3.6), while left-side players made more down-the-middle lobs (RTC = 6.0). Finally, in men’s padel, the lobs tended to overpass the opponents when they were down the middle (RTC = 4.1) and tended to not overpass when they were cross-court (RTC = 2.5). In conclusion, there are differences in the characteristics of lobs in professional padel according to sex. These results can be very useful for coaches for performing specific training on the lob according to the sex of their players.

This study aimed to describe and distinguish shot characteristics between set winning and losing pairs in high-level male padel players from Finland. Between 2022 and 2023, we analyzed 4469 points across 38 matches, examining factors such as match type, set outcome, effectiveness of the last shot, generator of forced error, and shot type. Results showed that set-winning players produced more winners (CSR = 7.7; CSR = 6.8) and committed fewer forced (CSR = 4.2; CSR = 2.8) and unforced errors (CSR = 4.0; CSR = 4.3) compared to set losing players, both in pressure training and competition matches. In addition, irrespective of the set outcome, these players achieved more winners and generated more forced errors with the smash, bandeja, forehand volley, and backhand volley. Nevertheless, a significant number of errors (both forced and unforced) are committed with the bandeja and volley (forehand and backhand). Furthermore, notable errors (forced and unforced) are observed in shots following one bounce and without a wall rebound, particularly in the forehand, backhand, and return. In conclusion, the ability to produce winners while minimizing forced and unforced errors proves to be crucial for securing sets in high-level men’s padel.

This study aimed to analyze the differences in the precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence according to the side of play, the ranking and the match outcome, under different competitive scenarios, in high level men’s padel players from Finland who trained under pressure prior to the competition. 10 men’s padel players (28.60 (4.17) years old) from the highest category participated in the research. The CSAI-2R (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised) and STAI-S (State–Trait Anxiety Inventory – State) questionnaires were used and descriptive and inferential analyzes were performed, including Mann–Whitney’s U tests. The findings illuminate that, across the player spectrum, somatic anxiety and self-confidence levels are higher before competition compared to training matches. This trend holds true for left-side, higher-ranked and match winning players. Even lower-ranked players exhibit heightened self-confidence preceding competitions. These insights offer valuable considerations for players, coaches, and sports psychologists, fostering a deeper understanding of the intricate interplay between pressure training, competition, and the athlete’s psychological landscape.

El objetivo fue analizar las características de los remates finalistas, a través del instrumento validado OASP, según su efectividad en pádel profesional y según el género de los jugadores. Para ello se analizaron 806 remates finalistas de 42 partidos masculinos y 29 femeninos correspondientes a seis torneos World Padel Tour de la temporada 2021, realizando un análisis descriptivo e inferencial. Los resultados indican que, aunque los hombres realizan más remates ganadores que las mujeres (hombres: 60.52%; mujeres: 39.48%), tanto los hombres como las mujeres realizan más remates ganadores que errores con el remate (hombres (ganadores: 76.66%, errores 23.34%); mujeres (ganadores: 63.20%, errores: 36.8%)), disminuyendo su eficacia según se alejan de la red (zonas de fondo, masculino y error: RTC=5.0, RTC=3.7; zonas de fondo, femenino y error: RTC=6.5, RTC= 4.1; zonas cercanas a la red, masculino y ganador: RTC= 2.1, RTC=2.3, zonas cercanas a la red, femenino y ganador: RTC=5.3, RTC=4.2). Además, los hombres y las mujeres finalizan los remates con éxito cuando son planos (y liftados los hombres) y paralelos, mientras que suelen finalizarlos con error cuando son cortados y cruzados. Así, el entrenamiento en pádel debería tener en cuenta las características de los remates que desarrollan los jugadores atendiendo a su género, para mejorar durante los entrenamientos las necesidades de la competición.

The aim of the current study was to assess precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence in high level men’s padel players from Finland. Twenty eight men’s padel players from the highest category participated in the research (87.5% of the target population). The CSAI-2R (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised) and STAI-S (State–Trait Anxiety Inventory – State) questionnaires were used and descriptive and inferential analyzes were performed, including the Kruskal Wallis’s H and Mann–Whitney’s U tests. The results show that seeded players presented lower levels of cognitive anxiety (η2 = 0.111). Moreover, losers of first round presented more state anxiety than winners (η2 = 0.302). Before the first match, state anxiety was higher than prior to the second match (η2 = 0.148). Furthermore, lower ranked players of first round, compared to second, presented more state anxiety and somatic anxiety (η2 = 0.487 and η2 = 0.277, respectively). However, according to the results obtained, self-confidence was not affected by any of the variables analyzed (ranking, seed, result or round). These findings may be of great interest to players, coaches and sports psychologists, as they allow an enhanced comprehension of the player’s level of anxiety and self-confidence.

El objetivo del presente trabajo fue analizar la influencia de la regla del punto de oro en parámetros de juego en pádel profesional. Se analizaron mediante observación sistemática un total de 91 sets (47 femeninos y 44 masculinos) de las temporadas 2019 y 2020 del circuito profesional World Padel Tour. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron una mayor duración del set (p=.009), tiempo de descanso (p=.039), bolas de breaks (p=.005) y breaks (p=.018) en pádel femenino. Además, se observaron diferencias significativas en el tiempo de pausa en función del set (p=.009), siendo el tercer set en el que los jugadores realizan un mayor tiempo de pausa. La incorporación de la regla del punto de oro produjo un incremento en el número de juegos por set (p=.040).Por último, se encontraron diferencias significativas en el número de bolas de break (p=. 013) en función de la ronda de juego. Concretamente se produce un mayor número de bolas de break en la final respecto a la ronda de cuartos de final (p

Global tree abundance is demonstrated to correlate with latitudinal variables, with tree size and self-thinning strategies impacting current estimates of tree count.

Monitoring the demands on basketball referees is essential for optimizing their performance and reducing the risk of injuries. This study aimed to analyze the workload experienced by elite basketball referees during official games. Using a quasi-experimental empirical methodology, inertial devices (WIMUPRO) were used for four referees participating in the official tournament of the Spanish first-division basketball league. All the matches in the tournament were analyzed. Descriptive analysis and ANOVA were used to understand the referees’ demands. Moreover, a Mixed Linear Model was used to take into account the individuality of each referee in the analysis of the variables. The results indicate that the analyzed external and internal load variables are specific to each basketball referee. The variability in referees’ external and internal load demands was identified as low to moderate within performances, between matches, and between quarters. The external and internal load variables did not vary among the three analyzed games. The distance covered during the first quarter of the games was less than in the rest of the quarters, but it was performed at a higher intensity. Neuromuscular load (analyzed as Impacts, Player Load, and Power Metabolic) showed higher values in the first quarter of the games than in the rest. The referees’ response to competition is individual and can be influenced by situational variables such as the moment or type of game.

Summary: Background: Anti-COVID-19 hyperimmune immunoglobulin (hIG) can provide standardized and controlled antibody content. Data from controlled clinical trials using hIG for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19 outpatients have not been reported. We assessed the safety and efficacy of subcutaneous anti-COVID-19 hyperimmune immunoglobulin 20% (C19-IG20%) compared to placebo in preventing development of symptomatic COVID-19 in asymptomatic individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Methods: We did a multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, in asymptomatic unvaccinated adults (≥18 years of age) with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection within 5 days between April 28 and December 27, 2021. Participants were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to receive a blinded subcutaneous infusion of 10 mL with 1 g or 2 g of C19-IG20%, or an equivalent volume of saline as placebo. The primary endpoint was the proportion of participants who remained asymptomatic through day 14 after infusion. Secondary endpoints included the proportion of individuals who required oxygen supplementation, any medically attended visit, hospitalisation, or ICU, and viral load reduction and viral clearance in nasopharyngeal swabs. Safety was assessed as the proportion of patients with adverse events. The trial was terminated early due to a lack of potential benefit in the target population in a planned interim analysis conducted in December 2021. ClinicalTrials.gov registry: NCT04847141. Findings: 461 individuals (mean age 39.6 years [SD 12.8]) were randomized and received the intervention within a mean of 3.1 (SD 1.27) days from a positive SARS-CoV-2 test. In the prespecified modified intention-to-treat analysis that included only participants who received a subcutaneous infusion, the primary outcome occurred in 59.9% (91/152) of participants receiving 1 g C19-IG20%, 64.7% (99/153) receiving 2 g, and 63.5% (99/156) receiving placebo (difference in proportions 1 g C19-IG20% vs. placebo, −3.6%; 95% CI -14.6% to 7.3%, p = 0.53; 2 g C19-IG20% vs placebo, 1.1%; −9.6% to 11.9%, p = 0.85). None of the secondary clinical efficacy endpoints or virological endpoints were significantly different between study groups. Adverse event rate was similar between groups, and no severe or life-threatening adverse events related to investigational product infusion were reported. Interpretation: Our findings suggested that administration of subcutaneous human hyperimmune immunoglobulin C19-IG20% to asymptomatic individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection was safe but did not prevent development of symptomatic COVID-19. Funding: Grifols.

Abstract Salt marshes are unique habitats between sea or saline lakes and land that need to be conserved from the effects of global change. Understanding the variation in functional structure of plant community along environmental gradients is critical to predict the response of plant communities to ongoing environmental changes. We evaluated the changes in the functional structure of halophytic communities along soil gradients including salinity, in Iranian salt marshes; Lake Urmia, Lake Meyghan, Musa estuary, and Nayband Bay (Iran). We established 48 plots from 16 sites in four salt marshes and sampled 10 leaves per species to measure leaf functional traits. Five soil samples were sampled from each plot and 30 variables were analyzed. We examined the changes in the functional structure of plant communities (i.e., functional diversity [FD] and community weighted mean [CWM]) along local soil gradients using linear mixed effect models. Our results showed that FD and CWM of leaf thickness tended to increase with salinity, while those indices related to leaf shape decreased following soil potassium content. Our results suggest that the variations in functional structure of plant communities along local soil gradients reveal the effect of different ecological processes (e.g., niche differentiation related to the habitat heterogeneity) that drive the assembly of halophytic plant communities in SW Asian salt marshes.

The quantification of the external load and internal load of professional players is of vital importance since it provides a great deal of information on the state of the physical condition of athletes during competition and training. The aim of the present study was to quantify the external load and internal load of the players of a first level team of the Spanish basketball league for two weeks corresponding to the pre-season 2022/2023. Seventeen load variables were analyzed and organized into kinematics external load, neuromuscular external load, and internal load. All variables were normalized to the same time unit (minute). For this purpose, all training sessions were monitored using inertial devices. The results show significant differences in the external load and internal load variables depending on the task performed and the specific position. Each type of task provokes different responses in the players, with Full Game situations producing the highest values in the kinematic external load variables (p < 0.05). The selection of each type of task must be adjusted to the physical and technical–tactical objective to be developed. Despite the general work carried out in the pre-season, the centers are the players who bear the greatest internal load in this period. For this reason, it is necessary to individualize the training processes from the pre-season.

Abstract Although the role played by phylogeny in the assembly of plant communities remains as a priority to complete the theory of species coexistence, experimental evidence is lacking. It is still unclear to what extent phylogenetic diversity is a driver or a consequence of species assembly processes. We experimentally explored how phylogenetic diversity can drive the community level responses to drought conditions in annual plant communities. We manipulated the initial phylogenetic diversity of the assemblages and the water availability in a common garden experiment with two irrigation treatments: average natural rainfall and drought, formed with annual plant species of gypsum ecosystems of Central Spain. We recorded plant survival and the numbers of flowering and fruiting plants per species in each assemblage. GLMMs were performed for the proportion of surviving, flowering, fruiting plants per species and for total proportion of surviving species and plants per pot. In water limited conditions, high phylogenetic diversity favored species coexistence over time with higher plant survival and more flowering and fruiting plants per species and more species and plants surviving per pot. Our results agree with the existence of niche complementarity and the convergence of water economy strategies as major mechanisms for promoting species coexistence in plant assemblages in semiarid Mediterranean habitats. Our findings point to high phylogenetic diversity among neighboring plants as a plausible feature underpinning the coexistence of species, because the success of each species in terms of surviving and producing offspring in drought conditions was greater when the initial phylogenetic diversity was higher. Our study is a step forward to understand how phylogenetic relatedness is connected to the mechanisms determining the maintenance of biodiversity.

Seasonally dry forests (SDFs) are one of the most challenging ecosystems for amphibians, fueling the diversity of this group of vertebrates. An updated inventory of native amphibians present in the Equatorial SDF is provided, which extends along the Pacific coast of Ecuador and northwestern Peru. The study is based on an extensive field sampling (two thirds of the total records) carried out throughout the Equatorial SDF, along with a compilation of the available information on distribution of amphibians in the region from published scientific papers, museum collections and on-line databases. The final dataset included 2,032 occurrence records for 30 amphibian species, belonging to eight anuran families. Additionally, data regarding conservation status, habitat use, spawn deposition site, reproductive mode, and body size, along with an identification key for all encountered species are provided. The results indicate a strong sampling bias with a deficit in the Peruvian part of the study area, and a need for urgent inventories targeted at under-sampled areas, using modern taxonomic methods. The study emphasizes the conservation priorities in the Equatorial SDF, based on the distribution, conservation status and life-history data. This information should be useful for the local authorities and institutions involved in the management and conservation of biodiversity in SDF.

One of the most widely used strategies for optimizing training tasks is to modify the number of players, the Game Situations. The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of the Game Situations in External Load variables and Organizational variables used by a coach for the planning his training for a children basketball team. A total of 15 training tasks, made up 91 tasks were analyzed during the 2019/2020 season, registered through the Integral Analysis System of Training (SIATE). A descriptive analysis of variables was conducted, followed by an inferential analysis to identify the relationship and associations between the independent variable and the dependent ones. According to the results, it is concluded that there is a significant relationship between the Game Situation and the External Load variables (Opposition Degree, Task Density, Number of Simultaneous Performers, Competitive Task Load, Cognitive Implication, Task Load and Time Task Load) and Organizational variables (Total Task Time, Explication Time, Use, Participation and Participation Value). The result showed that the External Load and Organizational variables of the training tasks are conditioned by the Game Situation.

Abstract Population persistence is strongly determined by climatic variability. Changes in the patterns of climatic events linked to global warming may alter population dynamics, but their effects may be strongly modulated by biotic interactions. Plant populations interact with each other in such a way that responses to climate of a single population may impact the dynamics of the whole community. In this study, we assess how climate variability affects persistence and coexistence of two dominant plant species in a semiarid shrub community on gypsum soils. We use 9 years of demographic data to parameterize demographic models and to simulate population dynamics under different climatic and ecological scenarios. We observe that populations of both coexisting species may respond to common climatic fluctuations both similarly and in idiosyncratic ways, depending on the yearly combination of climatic factors. Biotic interactions (both within and among species) modulate some of their vital rates, but their effects on population dynamics highly depend on climatic fluctuations. Our results indicate that increased levels of climatic variability may alter interspecific relationships. These alterations might potentially affect species coexistence, disrupting competitive hierarchies and ultimately leading to abrupt changes in community composition.

Correlations between tree species diversity and tree abundance are well established, but the direction of the relationship is unresolved. Here the authors use path models to estimate plausible causal pathways in the diversity-abundance relationship across 23 global forests regions, finding a lack of general support for a positive diversity-abundance relationship, which is prevalent in the most productive lands on Earth only

Urbanization constitutes one of the most aggressive drivers of habitat and biodiversity loss worldwide. However, studies focused on determining the response of local biodiversity to urbanization are still scarce, especially in tropical ecosystems. Urban ecosystems are characterized by low biological productivity which in turn leads to a reduction in biodiversity. However, the responses to urbanization should be species dependent. For instance, changes in the availability of resources can favor certain species with specific characteristics. We assessed the effects of the urbanization process on a bird community in a city located in the Tropical Andes of southern Ecuador, a region widely recognized for its diversity and endemism of birds. We selected three independent localities in each of the four levels of the urbanization gradient in the study area (forest, forest-pasture, pasture, and urban). In each locality, we sampled the bird community by visual and auditory surveys along 1 km transects between 2016 and 2017. We recorded a total of 1,257 individuals belonging to 74 bird species. We evaluated if the responses of richness and abundance of birds are dependent on trophic guild and foraging strata. We found a significant decrease in bird species richness and abundance from forest to urban sites. However, the response of birds was dependent on the trophic guild and foraging strata. Granivorous birds showed a positive response associated with the urbanization gradient while insectivorous birds showed a negative response. Insectivorous birds were more abundant in forest sites and decreased in abundance across the urbanization gradient. We found that the proportion of birds using different foraging strata drastically changed along urban gradient. Forest sites exhibited a bird community using a variety of habitats, but the bird community became simpler toward the most urbanized sites. Our findings showed different effects of urbanization on bird communities. The ugly: urbanization leads to a dramatic reduction in the diversity of birds, which is consistent in cities with different characteristics and ecological contexts. On the other hand, the responses of bird guilds to urbanization are species dependent. Some guilds are positively impacted by urbanization and show increases in species richness and abundance while other guilds are negatively impacted.

Chronic disturbance is widely recognized as one of main triggers of diversity loss in seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTFs). However, the pathways through which diffuse disturbance is acting on the forest are little understood. This information is especially demanded in the case of vanishing Neotropical seasonally dry forests such as the Tumbesian ones. We proposed a conceptual model to analyze the factors behind the loss of woody species richness along a forest disturbance gradient, explicitly considering the existence of direct and indirect causal pathways of biodiversity loss. We hypothesized that the chronic disturbance can act on the woody species richness directly, either by selective extraction of resources or by browsing of palatable species for livestock, or indirectly, by modifying characteristics of the forest structure and productivity. To test our model, we sampled forest remnants in a very extensive area submitted to long standing chronic pressure. Our forests cells (200 × 200 m) were characterized both in terms of woody species composition, structure, and human pressure. Our structural equation models (SEMs) showed that chronic disturbance is driving a loss of species richness. This was done mainly by indirect effects through the reduction of large trees density. We assume that changes in tree density modify the environmental conditions, thus increasing the stress and finally filtering some specific species. The analysis of both, direct and indirect, allows us to gain a better understanding of the processes behind plant species loss in this SDTF.

The objective was to analyze the effectiveness in men’s and women’s professional padel of errors and winners depending on the type of shot and the importance of the situation during each game. In addition, differences between men and women were identified. The sample was made up of 2759 points corresponding to the games that finished with a golden point from matches played in the 2021 season of the World Padel Tour circuit. The results show men and women make more errors (men: 58.7%; women: 63.2%) than winners (men: 41.3%; women: 36.8%), and this difference increases as the importance of the points increases in men’s padel; however, the opposite happens in women’s padel. Trays and smashes are the most characteristic last shots in men’s and women’s padel (hits with which more winners are achieved), followed by back wall shots (shots where more errors are made) and then drive and backhand volleys. In men’s padel there are more winning shots and fewer errors than in women’s padel, except in the golden points, where men make more errors than women. These considerations are of great importance, as they help the players to know the most effective way to finish points according to the situation of the game.

Understanding how functional and phylogenetic patterns vary among scales and along ecological gradients within a given species pool is critical for inferring community assembly processes. However, we lack a clear understanding of these patterns in stressful habitats such as Mediterranean high mountains where ongoing global warming is expected to affect species fitness and species interactions, and subsequently species turnover. In this study, we investigated 39 grasslands with the same type of plant community and very little species turnover across an elevation gradient above the treeline at Sierra de Guadarrama National Park in central Spain. In particular, we assessed functional and phylogenetic patterns, including functional heterogeneity, using a multi-scale approach (cells, subplots, and plots) and determined the relevance of key ecological factors (i.e., elevation, potential solar radiation, pH, soil organic carbon, species richness, and functional heterogeneity) that affect functional and phylogenetic patterns at each spatial scale. Overall, at the plot scale, coexisting species tended to be more functionally and phylogenetically similar. By contrast, at the subplot and cell scales, species tended to be more functionally different but phylogenetically similar. Functional heterogeneity at the cell scale was comparable to the variation across plots along the gradient. The relevance of ecological factors that regulate diversity patterns varied among spatial scales. An increase in elevation resulted in functional clustering at larger scales and phylogenetic overdispersion at a smaller scale. The soil pH and organic carbon levels exhibited complex functional patterns, especially at small spatial scales, where an increase in pH led to clustering patterns for the traits related to the leaf economic spectrum (i.e., foliar thickness, specific leaf area, and leaf dry matter content). Our findings confirm the presence of primary environmental filters (coldness and summer drought at our study sites) that constrain the regional species pool, suggesting the presence of additional assembly mechanisms that act at the smallest scale (e.g., micro-environmental gradients and/or species interactions). Functional and phylogenetic relatedness should be determined using a multi-scale approach to help interpret community assembly processes and understand the initial community responses to environmental changes, including ongoing global warming.

Natural and seminatural habitat remnants play a crucial ecological role in intensified agroecosystems. Assumptions on the conservation value of small and poorly connected fragments in a hostile matrix come from generalization obtained from a limited number of taxa, mostly plants, and vertebrates. To date, few studies have analyzed the effect of fragmentation on ant communities in Mediterranean agroecosystems, despite the importance of this group of animals on several key ecosystem functions and services. Here, we analyze the effects of fragment area and connectivity on ant communities in gypsum outcrops in a large cereal agroecosystem of Central Spain. Ant communities were described by their species composition, abundance (total number of occurrences), and number of species, standardized both by area (species density), and abundance (species richness). Observed number of species was relatively high in comparison with other studies in the Mediterranean, and we found no effects of fragment characteristics on species density, species richness and species composition, which implies that even small and isolated patches do have a value for ant conservation. Moreover, total number of occurrences were higher for smaller and more isolated fragments. This finding contrasts with the results reported for other taxa in similar gypsum habitats and suggests that certain ant traits and strategies make them particularly resistant to fragmentation and capable to take advantage of small habitat patches. Given the important ecological role played by ants, we recommend the preservation of these small habitat fragments in the management plans of agroecosystems in these drylands, especially in those cases in which intensification of agricultural practices greatly diminish natural habitat availability.

Despite the constraining weight of summer drought over plant life which distinguishes Mediterranean high-mountains, and its anticipated exacerbation under the current climate crisis, there is still little knowledge of the underlying drought-endurance mechanisms in Mediterranean high-mountain species, such as osmolyte accumulation. To fill this gap, we studied the role of two of the most frequent osmoregulators in plants, proline and osmotically active carbohydrates (OAC), as pointers of the drought-stress response in seven high-mountain plant species representative of the high-mountain plant communities in Central Spain, along an elevation gradient. Overall, our results are consistent with the escalation of summer drought and suggest the involvement of osmolytes to sustain plant activity in these specialists during the growing season. Proline content showed a steadily increasing pattern in line with the seasonal aggravation of summer drought. The significant rise in mean proline in most species, coinciding with the periods with the greatest decline in soil water content, suggests the recurrent role of proline in the drought-stress response in the studied specialists. The lack of significant differences between elevations and the minimal seasonal variations in the OAC content suggest a fixed OAC content independent of functional type to sustain metabolic functions under summer drought. Moreover, these findings allow inferring the action of both OAC and proline as osmoregulators, allowing to support plant functions in these specialists under atypically dry conditions. Overall, our findings are consistent with proline as a major osmoprotectant strategy over OAC buildup in these specialists, which may be related to an adaptation strategy associated with the briefness of the growing season and the incidence of less favorable conditions in Mediterranean high-mountains.

Functional traits have emerged as a key to understand species responses to environmental conditions. The concerted expression of multiple traits gives rise to the phenotype of each individual, which is the one interacting with the environment and evolving. However, patterns of trait covariation and how they vary in response to environmental conditions remain poorly understood, particularly at the intraspecific scale. Here, we have measured traits at different scales and in different organs, and analysed their covariation in a large number of conspecifics distributed in two contrasting environments. We expected significant correlations among traits, not only within clusters of traits as found in global, multispecies studies, but also among clusters, with more relationships within clusters, due to genetic constraints, and among clusters due to more coordinated phenotypes than community level, multispecies studies. We surveyed 100 Pinus sylvestris trees in a Mediterranean mountainous area distributed in two contrasting elevations. We measured 13 functional traits, in three clusters (leaf, stem and whole-plant traits), and analysed their variation and coordination. We found significant coordination among traits belonging to different clusters that reveals coordinated phenotypes. However, we found fewer correlations within trait clusters than initially expected. Trait correlation structures (number, intensity and type of correlations among traits) differed among individuals at different elevations. We observed more correlations within trait clusters at low elevation compared to those at high elevation. Moreover, the higher number of correlations among different trait clusters and the lower trait variation at the higher elevation suggests that variability decreases under more stressful conditions. Altogether, our results reveal that traits at intraspecific scale are coordinated in a broad network and not only within clusters of traits but also that this trait covariation is significantly affected by environmental conditions.

Vegetation above treeline constitutes one of the most vulnerable ecosystems to climate warming and other drivers of Global Change. Given the panorama of such an uncertain future facing these plant communities, it is critical to know how they respond to environmental changes and improve the knowledge on the potential impacts of climate change on their distribution. Recently, with the impressive development of trait-based approaches, relevant progress has been made to better understand the relationships between environmental conditions and plant communities. In this data paper, we describe data on abundances of 327 alpine plant species across 430 subplots of 2.4 m × 2.4 m in three mountain ranges (Sierra de Guadarrama and Pyrenees in Spain, and the Central Andes in Chile). We provide data on different environmental variables that represent variation in abiotic conditions and operate at different spatial scales (e.g., climatic, topographic and soil conditions). Data on six plant functional traits are also shown, which were measured on ten individuals of each species, following standard protocols. We provided the dataset as tables in the supplementary material. This information could be used to analyse the relationship between the alpine vegetation and changes in environmental conditions, and ultimately, to understand ecosystem functioning and guide conservation strategies of theses threatened and valuable ecosystems. Keywords: Alpine grassland, Cover, Dataset, Mediterranean and temperate mountains, Vegetation survey, Plant functional trait

Albeit the remarkably high Ultraviolet B loads, high temperatures, and drought stress substantiate the need for efficient photoprotective strategies in Mediterranean high-mountain plants, these remain understudied. Considering the sensitivity of photosystems to extreme conditions, we evaluated an environmental gradient’s weight on the photoprotection of five high-mountain specialists from Central Spain. Diurnal and seasonal variations in chlorophyll, chlorophyll fluorescence, carotenoids, and xanthophylls in consecutive and climatically contrasting years were taken to evaluate the effect of the impending climate coarsening at the photosystem level. Our results revealed significant differences among species in the xanthophyll cycle functioning, acting either as a continuous photoprotective strategy enhancing photochemistry-steadiness; or prompted only to counteract the cumulative effects of atypically adverse conditions. The lutein cycle’s involvement is inferred from the high lutein content found in all species and elevations, acting as a sustained photoprotective strategy. These findings added to high de-epoxidation state (DEPS) and minor seasonal changes in the chlorophyll a/b ratio, infer the xanthophyll and Lutein cycles are crucial for upkeeping the photosystems’ optimal functioning in these plants heightening their photoprotective capacity during periods of more unfavorable conditions. Nevertheless, an atypically dry growing season’s detrimental effect infers the feasible surpassing of stress-thresholds and the precariousness of the communities’ functional diversity under climate change.

The sensitivity of stomatal behavior and patterning (i.e., distribution, density, size) to environmental stimuli, renders them crucial for defining the physiological performance of leaves. Thus, assessing long-term modifications in stomatal traits in conserved specimens arises as a valuable eco-physiological approach to predict how the rising trend of warmer, drier summers could affect plant fitness; particularly in mountain areas already experiencing climate aggravation and lacking the related monitoring schemes like Mediterranean high-mountains. Variations in foliar and stomatal traits were studied in conserved specimens of Senecio pyrenaicus subsp. carpetanus from Sierra de Guadarrama over the past 71 years. Our findings revealed decreasing trends in leaf width, stomatal size, and increasing tendency in stomatal density, all correlated with the recent 30-year climate exacerbation in these mountains. This evidenced a positive selection favoring traits that allow safeguarding plant performance under drier, hotter weather conditions. The significant relation between stomatal traits and climatic variables upholds the role of stomatal patterning in sensing environmental cues in this species, feasibly optimizing physiological responses involved in the growth−water loss trade-off. The transition to smaller, densely packed stomata observed in recent decades could indicate local-adaptive plasticity in this species, enhancing stomatal response, as coarser environmental conditions take place in Sierra de Guadarrama.

Crown architecture usually is heterogeneous as a result of foraging in spatially and temporally heterogeneous light environments. Ecologists are only beginning to identify the importance of temporal heterogeneity for light acquisition in plants, especially at the diurnal scale. Crown architectural heterogeneity often leads to a diurnal variation in light interception. However, maximizing light interception during midday may not be an optimal strategy in environments with excess light. Instead, long-lived plants are expected to show crown architectures and leaf positions that meet the contrasting needs of light interception and avoidance of excess light on a diurnal basis. We expected a midday depression in the diurnal course of light interception both at the whole-crown and leaf scales, as a strategy to avoid the interception of excessive irradiance. We tested this hypothesis in a population of guava trees (Psidium guajava L.) growing in an open tropical grassland. We quantified three crown architectural traits: intra-individual heterogeneity in foliage clumping, crown openness, and leaf position angles. We estimated the diurnal course of light interception at the crown scale using hemispheric photographs, and at the leaf scale using the cosine of solar incidence. Crowns showed a midday depression in light interception, while leaves showed a midday peak. These contrasting patterns were related to architectural traits. At the crown scale, the midday depression of light interception was linked to a greater crown openness and foliage clumping in crown tops than in the lateral parts of the crown. At the leaf scale, an average inclination angle of 45° led to the midday peak in light interception, but with a huge among-leaf variation in position angles. The mismatch in diurnal course of light interception at crown and leaf scales can indicate that different processes are being optimized at each scale. These findings suggest that the diurnal course of light interception may be an important dimension of the resource acquisition strategies of long-lived woody plants. Using a temporal approach as the one applied here may improve our understanding of the diversity of crown architectures found across and within environments.

We assessed the relative importance of dispersal limitation, environmental heterogeneity and their joint effects as determinants of the spatial patterns of 229 species in the moist tropical forest of Barro Colorado Island (Panama). We differentiated five types of species according to their dispersal syndrome; autochorous, anemochorous, and zoochorous species with small, medium-size and large fruits. We characterized the spatial patterns of each species and we checked whether they were best fitted by Inhomogeneous Poisson (IPP), Homogeneous Poisson cluster (HPCP) and Inhomogeneous Poisson cluster processes (IPCP) by means of the Akaike Information Criterion. We also assessed the influence of species' dispersal mode in the average cluster size. We found that 63% of the species were best fitted by IPCP regardless of their dispersal syndrome, although anemochorous species were best described by HPCP. Our results indicate that spatial patterns of tree species in this forest cannot be explained only by dispersal limitation, but by the joint effects of dispersal limitation and environmental heterogeneity. The absence of relationships between dispersal mode and degree of clustering suggests that several processes modify the original spatial pattern generated by seed dispersal. These findings emphasize the importance of fitting point process models with a different biological meaning when studying the main determinants of spatial structure in plant communities.

Mountains are considered excellent natural laboratories for studying the determinants of plant diversity at contrasting spatial scales. To gain insights into how plant diversity is structured at different spatial scales, we surveyed high mountain plant communities in the Chilean Andes where man-driven perturbations are rare. This was done along elevational gradients located at different latitudes taking into account factors that act at fine scales, including abiotic (potential solar radiation and soil quality) and biotic (species interactions) factors, and considering multiple spatial scales. Species richness, inverse of Simpson's concentration (Dequiv), beta-diversity and plant cover were estimated using the percentage of cover per species recorded in 34 sites in the different regions with contrasted climates. Overall, plant species richness, Dequiv and plant cover were lower in sites located at higher latitudes. We found a unimodal relationship between species richness and elevation and this pattern was constant independently of the regional climatic conditions. Soil quality decreased the beta-diversity among the plots in each massif and increased the richness, the Dequiv and cover. Segregated patterns of species co-occurrence were related to increases in richness, Dequiv and plant cover at finer scales. Our results showed that elevation patterns of alpine plant diversity remained constant along the regions although the mechanisms underlying these diversity patterns may differ among climatic regions. They also suggested that the patterns of plant diversity in alpine ecosystems respond to a series of factors (abiotic and biotic) that act jointly at different spatial scale determining the assemblages of local communities, but their importance can only be assessed using a multi-scale spatial approach.

Habitat fragmentation, i.e., fragment size and isolation, can differentially alter patterns of neutral and quantitative genetic variation, fitness and phenotypic plasticity of plant populations, but their effects have rarely been tested simultaneously. We assessed the combined effects of size and connectivity on these aspects of genetic and phenotypic variation in populations of Centaurea hyssopifolia, a narrow endemic gypsophile that previously showed performance differences associated with fragmentation. We grew 111 maternal families sampled from 10 populations that differed in their fragment size and connectivity in a common garden, and characterized quantitative genetic variation, phenotypic plasticity to drought for key functional traits, and plant survival, as a measure of population fitness. We also assessed neutral genetic variation within and among populations using eight microsatellite markers. Although C. hyssopifolia is a narrow endemic gypsophile, we found substantial neutral genetic variation and quantitative variation for key functional traits. The partition of genetic variance indicated that a higher proportion of variation was found within populations, which is also consistent with low population differentiation in molecular markers, functional traits and their plasticity. This, combined with the generally small effect of habitat fragmentation suggests that gene flow among populations is not restricted, despite large differences in fragment size and isolation. Importantly, population’s similarities in genetic variation and plasticity did not reflect the lower survival observed in isolated populations. Overall, our results indicate that, although the species consists of genetically variable populations able to express functional plasticity, such aspects of adaptive potential may not always reflect populations’ survival. Given the differential effects of habitat connectivity on functional traits, genetic variation and fitness, our study highlights the need to shift the focus of fragmentation studies to the mechanisms that regulate connectivity effects, and call for caution on the use of genetic variation and plasticity to forecast population performance.

(1) Background: Neotropical montane forests represent one of the most diverse world ecosystems; however, they are also among the most threatened ones mostly due to deforestation. Our main goal is to classify and clarify the forest types based on the changes in basal area (BA), tree density, and species composition of montane forests in Southern Ecuador, and to determine the influence of critical environmental and geomorphological factors. (2) Methods: One hundred thirty-two temporary plots of 400 m2 were installed in homogeneous and well-conserved forest stands. We identified and measured all trees >10 cm diameter breast height (DBH). We modeled species diversity (Fisher’s alpha) change in relation to climatic, altitudinal, and geomorphological gradients using GLM and Kruskall-Wallis analyses. The change in composition was determined using cluster analyses (BIOENV analysis followed by a LINKTREE procedure). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) was used to analyze changes across climatic and geomorphological gradients. Finally, we used a SIMPER analysis to identify the species that contributed most to the floristic dissimilarity among the identified altitudinal forests types. (3) Results: The floristic groups were determined by altitude, temperature, and isothermality, but also some geomorphological variables and lithology were used. Plots located in low hills have higher alpha diversity compared to the high hills and dissected mountains. (4) Conclusions: Altitude is the most important factor responsible for the division of structural and floristic groups. In addition, those plots located on the whitish tuff have higher alpha value diversity compared with plots in andesitic tuffs. Precipitation on the wettest quarter (>839 mm) and isothermality (>90.5) are the most relevant climatic factors driving the floristic classification.

Plant breeding systems have been viewed as mechanisms to promote outcrossing in order to increase genetic variability and prevent inbreeding depression. However, reduced fitness after crossing, outbreeding depression, has been often observed between individuals from different populations and more rarely, within populations. We studied the breeding system of Colutea hispanica using experimental hand pollinations in field conditions in one population in Central Spain in 2004 and 2006. Pollination experiments showed that C. hispanica set fruits from both self and cross-pollinations, suggesting that the species is highly self-compatible. In addition, fruit set was highest following geitonogamy in both years and no flowers set fruits from xenogamy in 2004. Although such enhanced reproductive success following selfing rather than crossing has been largely ignored in many studies on plant reproduction, it seems to be not as rare in plants as previously thought.

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Assessing changes in plant functional traits along gradients is useful for understanding the assembly of communities and their response to global and local environmental drivers. However, these changes may reflect the effects of species composition (i.e. composition turnover), species abundance (i.e. species interaction), and intra-specific trait variability (i.e. species plasticity). In order to determine the relevance of the latter, trait variation can be assessed under minimal effects of composition turnover. Nine sampling sites were established along an altitudinal gradient in a Mediterranean high mountain grassland community with low composition turnover (Madrid, Spain; 1940 m-2419 m). Nine functional traits were also measured for ten individuals of around ten plant species at each site, for a total of eleven species across all sites. The relative importance of different sources of variability (within/between site and intra-/inter-specific functional diversity) and trait variation at species and community level along the considered gradients were explored. We found a weak individual species response to altitude and other environmental variables although in some cases, individuals were smaller and leaves were thicker at higher elevations. This lack of species response was most likely due to greater within- than between-site species variation. At the community level, inter-specific functional diversity was generally greater than the intra-specific component except for traits linked to leaf element content (leaf carbon content, leaf nitrogen content, δ13C and δ15N). Inter-specific functional diversity decreased with lower altitude for four leaf traits (specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, δ13C and δ15N), suggesting trait convergence between species at lower elevations, where water shortage may have a stronger environmental filtering effect than colder temperatures at higher altitudes. Our results suggest that, within a vegetation type encompassing various environmental gradients, both, changes in species abundance and intra-specific trait variability adjust for the community functional response to environmental changes.

Gypsum soils are among the most restrictive and widespread substrates for plant life. Plants living on gypsum are classified as gypsophiles (exclusive to gypsum) and gypsovags (non-exclusive to gypsum). The former have been separated into wide and narrow gypsophiles, each with a putative different ecological strategy. Mechanisms displayed by gypsum plants to compete and survive on gypsum are still not fully understood. The aim of this study was to compare the main chemical groups in the leaves of plants with different specificity to gypsum soils and to explore the ability of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra analyzed with neural network (NN) modelling to discriminate groups of gypsum plants. Leaf samples of 14 species with different specificity to gypsum soils were analysed with FTIR spectroscopy coupled to neural network (NN) modelling. Spectral data were further related to the N, C, S, P, K, Na, Ca, Mg and ash concentrations of samples. The FTIR spectra of the three groups analyzed showed distinct features that enabled their discrimination through NN models. Wide gypsophiles stood out for the strong presence of inorganic compounds in their leaves, particularly gypsum and, in some species, also calcium oxalate crystals. The spectra of gypsovags had less inorganic chemical species, while those of narrow gypsum endemisms had low inorganics but shared with wide gypsophiles the presence of oxalate. Gypsum and calcium oxalate crystals seem to be widespread amongst gypsum specialist plants, possibly as a way to tolerate excess Ca and sulphate. However, other mechanisms such as the accumulation of sulphates in organic molecules are also compatible with plant specialization to gypsum. While gypsovags seem to be stress tolerant plants that tightly regulate the uptake of S and Ca, the ability of narrow gypsum endemisms to accumulate excess Ca as oxalate may indicate their incipient specialization to gypsum.

Global change triggers shifts in forest composition, with warming and aridification being particularly threatening for the populations located at the rear edge of the species distributions. This is the case of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in the Mediterranean Basin where uncertainties in relation to its dynamics under these changing scenarios are still high. We analysed the relative effect of climate on the recruitment patterns of Scots pine and its interactions with local biotic and abiotic variables at different spatial scales. Number of seedlings and saplings was surveyed, and their annual shoot growth measured in 96 plots located across altitudinal gradients in three different regions in the Iberian Peninsula. We found a significant influence of climate on demography and performance of recruits, with a non-linear effect of temperature on the presence of juveniles, and a positive effect of precipitation on their survival. Abundance of juveniles of P. sylvestris that underwent their first summer drought was skewed towards higher altitudes than the altitudinal mean range of the conspecific adults and the optimum elevation for seedlings' emergence. At local level, light availability did not influence juveniles' density, but it enhanced their growth. Biotic interactions were found between juveniles and the herb cover (competition) and between the number of newly emerged seedlings and shrubs (facilitation). Results also highlighted the indirect effect that climate exerts over the local factors, modulating the interactions with the pre-existing vegetation that were more evident at more stressful sites. This multiscale approach improves our understanding of the dynamics of these marginal populations and some management criteria can be inferred to boost their conservation under the current global warming.

The study of species coexistence and community assembly has been a hot topic in ecology for decades. Disentangling the hierarchical role of abiotic and biotic filters is crucial to understand community assembly processes. The most critical environmental factor in semi-arid environments is known to be water availability, and perennials are usually described as nurses that create milder local conditions and expand the niche range of several species. We aimed to broaden this view by jointly evaluating how biological soil crusts (BSCs), water availability, perennial species (presence/absence of Stipa tenacissima) and plant-plant interactions shape a semi-arid annual plant community. The presence and cover of annual species was monitored during three years of contrasting climate. Water stress acted as the primary filter determining the species pool available for plant community assembly. Stipa and BSCs acted as secondary filters by modulating the effects of water availability. At extremely harsh environmental conditions, Stipa exerted a negative effect on the annual plant community, while at more benign conditions it increased annual community richness. Biological soil crusts exerted a contradictory effect depending on climate and on the presence of Stipa, favoring annuals in the most adverse conditions but showing repulsion at higher water availability conditions. Finally, interactions among co-occurring annuals shaped species richness and diversity of the final annual plant assembly. This study sheds light on the processes determining the assembly of annual communities and highlights the importance of Biological Soil Crusts and of interactions among annual plants on the final outcome of the species assembly.

Land abandonment is one of the most powerful global change drivers in developed countries where recent rural exodus has been the norm. Abandonment of traditional land use practices has permitted the colonization of these areas by shrub and tree species. For fleshy fruited species the colonization of new areas is determined by the dispersal assemblage composition and abundance. In this study we showed how the relative contribution to the dispersal process by each animal species is modulated by the environmental heterogeneity and ecosystem structure. This complex interaction caused differential patterns on the seed dispersal in both, landscape patches in which the process of colonization is acting nowadays and mature woodlands of Juniperus thurifera, a relict tree distributed in the western Mediterranean Basin. Thrushes (Turdus spp) and carnivores (red fox and stone marten) dispersed a high amount of seeds while rabbits and sheeps only a tiny fraction. Thrushes dispersed a significant amount of seeds in new colonization areas, however they were limited by the presence of high perches with big crop size. While carnivores dispersed seeds to all studied habitats, even in those patches where no trees of J. thurifera were present, turning out to be critical for primary colonization. The presence of Pinus and Quercus was related to a reduced consumption of J. thurifera seeds while the presence of fleshy fruited shrubs was related with higher content of J. thurifera seeds in dispersers' faeces. Therefore environmental heterogeneity and ecosystem structure had a great influence on dispersers feeding behaviour, and should be considered in order to accurately describe the role of seed dispersal in ecological process, such as regeneration and colonization. J. thurifera expansion is not seed limited thanks to its diverse dispersal community, hence the conservation of all dispersers in an ecosystem enhance ecosystems services and resilience.