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[spa] El objetivo de esta tesis doctoral es analizar la prevalencia de victimización y polivictimización en una muestra comunitaria de adolescentes mexicanos de entre 12 y 17 años, en dos periodos: durante el último año y a lo largo de la vida. Además, examina la relación que existe entre las experiencias de victimización y polivictimización y la presencia de síntomas externalizantes e internalizantes. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 1068 adolescentes (504 mujeres y 564 hombres) de entre 12 y 17 años (M=14.45, DE=1.54), provenientes de 6 escuelas públicas de la ciudad de Morelia. Los adolescentes contestaron la versión mexicana del Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ; Finkelhor, Hamby et al., 2005) para medir las experiencias de victimización y la versión latina del Youth Self Report (YSR; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) para evaluar los síntomas internalizantes y externalizantes. Con el fin de establecer la prevalencia de seis diferentes dimensiones de victimización y polivictimización, se llevaron a cabo análisis descriptivos, en donde se usaron Odds ratio para calcular las diferencias de género (hombre y mujer) y grupo de edad (12-14 y 15-17 años). Además, se realizaron análisis de regresión jerárquica para determinar las contribuciones de la victimización y polivictimización en la predicción de sintomatología internalizante y externalizante. Alrededor del 80% de los adolescentes reportaron al menos una experiencia de victimización durante el último año, mientras el 85.5% reportó al menos una experiencia de victimización a lo largo de la vida. Los delitos comunes (65.6%) y la victimización indirecta (61%) fueron los tipos de victimización más frecuentes. El 35.9% de la muestra fueron clasificados como polivíctimas durante el último año. Las mujeres experimentaron un espectro más amplio de victimización que los hombres. Específicamente, las mujeres experimentaron más victimización por parte de cuidadores (OR=1.56, 95% IC=1.21-2.02), victimización sexual (OR=2.46, 95% IC=1.73-3.50), y victimización electrónica (OR=1.81, 95% IC=1.33-2.47), a lo largo de su vida. Los adolescentes mayores, de entre 15 y 17 años, experimentaron más victimización indirecta (OR=1.48, 95% IC=1.16-1.88) y victimización por parte de cuidadores durante el último año (OR=1.52, 95% IC=1.15-2.00). La polivictimización explicó una mayor variabilidad en las puntuaciones de síntomas internalizantes y externalizantes que un solo tipo de victimización. Los delitos comunes contribuyeron en la predicción de síntomas internalizantes y externalizantes aún cuando la polivictimización fue tomada en cuenta. Lo mismo ocurrió con la victimización por parte de cuidadores, que fue un predictor de síntomas internalizantes y la victimización indirecta fue un factor protector para síntomas internalizantes y problemas totales. Éste es el primer estudio que se realiza en México con un instrumento que permite hacer comparaciones transculturales y que analiza el impacto psicológico de la polivictimización. Nuestros resultados resaltan la importancia de seguir haciendo investigación en esta área y deberán ser tomados en cuenta para mejorar tanto programas de intervención como políticas públicas que ayuden en la prevención de la victimización infantil., [eng] The purpose of this doctoral thesis is to analyze the prevalence of victimization and poly- victimization in a community sample of Mexican adolescents aged 12-17 years in both frame times: the past year and lifetime. Furthermore, the research aims to examine the relationship between victimization and poly-victimization and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The sample comprised 1068 adolescents (504 females and 564 males) aged 12-17 years (M=14.45, SD=1.54) from 6 public schools in Morelia city. In order to assess victimization experiences and internalizing and externalizing symptoms, adolescents completed the Mexican version of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ; Finkelhor, Hamby et al., 2005) and the Latin version of the Youth Self Report (YSR; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001), respectively. Descriptive analyses were conducted to establish the prevalence of six different types of victimizations and poly-victimization. Odds ratio were used to estimate the differences between genders and age groups (12-14 and 15-17 years). In addition, hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine the contributions of victimization and poly- victimization in predicting internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Nearly 80% of the adolescents reported at least one experience of victimization during the past year, while 85.5% reported at least one experience of victimization in their lifetime. Conventional crimes (65.6%) and indirect victimization (61%) were the most frequent types of victimization reported. Of the sample, 35.9% were classified as poly-victims in the past year. Girls experienced a broader spectrum of victimization than boys. Specifically, girls experience more caregiver victimization (OR=1.56, 95% CI=1.21-2.02), sexual victimization (OR=2.46, 95% CI=1.73-3.50), and electronic victimization (OR=1.81, 95% CI=1.33-2.47), in their lifetime. Older adolescents experienced more witnessing victimization (OR=1.48, 95% CI=1.16-1.88) and caregiver victimization (OR=1.52, 95% CI=1.15-2.00) during the past year. Poly-victimization accounted for more variability in scores of externalizing and internalizing symptoms than a single type of victimization. Even when poly-victimization was considered, conventional crimes contributed to predicting both internalizing and externalizing symptoms, caregiver victimization was a predictor of internalizing symptoms and witnessing victimization was a protective factor for internalizing symptoms and total problems. This is the first study carried out in Mexico with an instrument that enables cross-cultural comparisons. Our findings highlight the necessity to increase research in this field and should be taken into consideration to improve both intervention programs and public policies to prevent child victimization.

[eng] Violence affects many children and youth, causing devastating effects. Schools are in an ideal position to prevent, detect and report potential victimization cases. Yet, studies have found several limitations to perform these tasks, like misconceptions or lack of knowledge and resources. Besides, the empirical evidence of the effect of each of these variables in the detection and reporting experience is limited. This thesis composed by three original empirical studies addresses the experience of school staff members with children and youth victimization, its detection and the reporting of potential cases, as well as their level of knowledge. The studies have been published as detailed in the “Studies” section. The sample for studies 1 and 2 was composed by 184 staff members between 22 and 64 years old (84.04% females, M = 43.40, SD = 10.37). Sample for study 3 included 453 school staff members (83.53% females) between 22 and 65 years old (M = 42.23, SD = 9.46). Participants answered a self-administered questionnaire created ad·hoc , including questions about experience with victimization (e.g., “Have you received any training regarding child victimization?”), its detection (e.g., “How many times during your career did you suspect that a minor might be being victimized?”) and its reporting (e.g., “Have you ever you report a child abuse suspicion to an external agency outside school (e.g., social services)?”). The level of knowledge was tested through statements about victimization (e.g., “Child victimization affects less than 10% of minors in Spain”) , its detection (e.g., “A minor growing up in a one-parent family is more likely to experience victimization”) and its reporting (e.g., “If a suspicions turns out not to be true, the family is entitled to sue the informant”) that participants had to classify as true, false or unknown. Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies, percentages, proportions, means and standard deviations), bivariate (i.e., Chi-square and Kruskal-Wallis test with their corresponding effect sizes) multivariate (i.e., logistic regression) and qualitative analysis were used to respond to each study’s aims. A small proportion of school staff has ever been trained regarding childhood and youth victimization. Over 70% has suspected that a student might be being victimized at least once. However, only around 40% of those who ever detected a potential case reported outside school. The majority of those who reported perceived the intervention that followed the report as beneficial for the child’s well-being. The decision not to report was mostly based on what happened once participants shared their concerns within the school. Other reasons not to report were thinking that their suspicions needed to be serious or certain, unclear definitions, feeling they were not entitled, lack of knowledge and fears. With each year of experience, the likelihood to detect a potential case increased by one time. The likelihood of reporting was significantly higher among school staff with accurate and concrete knowledge in reporting procedures (e.g., anonymity, need for the principal’s consent). Reporter’s gender (i.e., males were more likely to report than females) or the role they performed in school (i.e., workers who only came into contact with children specifically or sporadically reported significantly less than those who spent at least for hours a day in charge of groups of students) were also relevant. Results found complement previous research by quantifying the proportion of suspicions of potential victimization cases that go underreported from school. Findings contribute to dispel misconceptions about the efficiency of social services interventions and suggest ways in which early report can be increased. Empirical evidence of the effect of specific aspects of knowledge in reporting is provided and internal school dynamics that might prevent some concerns to reach external agencies are described., [spa] Las escuelas están en posición ideal para prevenir, detectar y notificar potenciales casos de violencia, pero los estudios reportan limitaciones como la persistencia de falsas creencias o falta de conocimiento y recursos. La presente tesis, compuesta por tres investigaciones originales, estudia la experiencia y el conocimiento de trabajadores escolares respecto de la victimización infantil y adolescente, su detección y notificación. La muestra de los estudios 1 y 2 fue de 184 trabajadores escolares de entre 22 y 64 años (84,04% mujeres, M = 43,40, DT = 10,37). En el estudio 3 se incluyeron 453 sujetos (83,53% mujeres) de entre 22 y 65 años (M = 42,23, DT = 9,46). Los participantes respondieron a un cuestionario autoadministrado creado ad·hoc, que incluía preguntas sobre victimización, detección y notificación. Se evaluó el nivel de conocimiento con frases que debían clasificarse como ciertas, falsas o desconocidas. Se obtuvieron estadísticos descriptivos, se hicieron análisis bivariados, multivariante y cualitativos para responder a los objetivos de cada estudio. Una minoría se ha formado en victimización. Más del 70% ha sospechado que alguno de sus estudiantes podría estar siendo victimizado/a. De ellos, sólo el 40% notificó alguna vez por fuera de la escuela. La mayoría de quienes habían notificado consideraron que la posterior intervención fue beneficiosa para el menor. La decisión de no notificar se tomó mayormente luego de compartir la sospecha con otros miembros del equipo. Con cada año de experiencia, la probabilidad de detectar al menos un potencial caso de victimización se incrementa una vez. La probabilidad de notificar es significativa más alta entre los participantes que tienen conocimiento concreto del procedimiento. El género o el cargo también resultaron relevantes. Esta tesis complementa trabajos anteriores cuantificando la proporción potenciales casos de victimización que no se notifican a autoridades exteriores desde la escuela. Los resultados contribuyen a desmitificar opiniones adversas sobre la eficiencia de los servicios sociales y sugieren maneras de aumentar la notificación temprana.

Victimization has been widely demonstrated to have negative consequences in minors. Most crimes against children go unreported and victims tend to reach adulthood without receiving any of the available specialized support. Studies have highlighted the unique role of school workers in early detection and reporting of possible cases of victimization, and have also found high rates of underreporting by school staff. The present study analyzes the underreporting of child and youth victimization suspicions among school staff and aims to identify variables related to its detection and reporting. One hundred and eighty-four school staff members (83.7% females, M = 42.6 years old, SD = 11.7) from 17 different schools completed a self-administered questionnaire designed to record their knowledge and experience regarding the detection and reporting of potential victimization cases. Over 74% of the school workers had suspected at least one situation of victimization during their careers, but only 27% had actually reported these concerns. Higher rates of reporting were significantly associated with male gender, more years of experience, and awareness of five common misconceptions. Reporting behavior could be predicted by gender, years of experience and two statements assessing respondents’ knowledge of victimization. In order to increase early reporting of possible cases of victimization, it is necessary to overcome certain misconceptions, raise awareness among school staff, design new training programs or interventions, and adapt the school dynamics in the light of these findings.

Highlights • We tested the effect of knowledge in detecting and reporting victimization cases from school. • School staff with more years of experience were more likely to detect potential victimization cases. • Knowing that a report can be made without the principal’s consent predicted reporting behavior. • Hours per day spent in contact with children increased the likelihood of reporting. • Training and interventions should focus on these aspects to increase early reporting., Knowledge of child victimization among school staff is believed to affect the detection and reporting of potential cases in the school environment, but the current evidence is scarce and contradictory. We assessed the link between knowledge of victimization and other relevant reporter characteristics in detecting and reporting children suspected to be victims of violence in a sample of 184 school staff members from Spain (84.02% females, M = 43.40, SD = 10.37). We compared participants who had never detected nor reported any cases (i.e., non-detectors) with participants who had detected but not reported outside school (i.e., inconsistent reporters) and participants who had detected and reported at least one potential case (i.e., consistent reporters). Knowledge about the reporting procedures varied significantly across groups. Years of experience was the only variable to significantly predict having detected at least one case across job experience. Knowing whether a report can be made anonymously or without the principal’s consent was significant to predict the likelihood of being a consistent reporter, along with hours spent daily in contact with students. Trainings for school staff should be aware of what specific aspects of knowledge tend to increase detection and reporting. Interventions should include more specific guidelines and ways of recreating experience (e.g., role-playing, virtual scenarios) as an effective strategy to respond to cases of potential victimization encountered at school.

Grup de Recerca en Victimització Infantil i Adolescent (GReVIA), Podeu consultar la versió en castellà a: http://hdl.handle.net/2445/117927, En aquest document es presenta l’instrument que s’ha fet servir en el marc de la recerca “La detecció i notificació de la victimització infantil i adolescent a les escoles de Barcelona” duta a terme pel Grup de Recerca en Victimització Infantil i Adolescent (GReVIA) de la Universitat de Barcelona al llarg de l’any 2016.

El compromiso social en la lucha contra el maltrato ha ido aumentando en los últimos años. Sin embargo, en ocasiones no se presta la debida atención a un colectivo especialmente vulnerable, en mi opinión, quizá el más vulnerable de todos por su invisibilidad: la infancia. El Fondo para la Infancia de las Naciones Unidas (UNICEF) presentó en 20141 unas cifras escalofriantes: cada cinco minutos muere un niño en el mundo víctima de la violencia; seis de cada diez niños de entre 2 y 14 años sufren maltrato físico en el entorno familiar; en aquella fecha, el conflicto de Siria ya había provocado la muerte de diez mil niños; en el Congo, unos treinta mil niños habían sido reclutados por grupos armados; mutilación genital femenina, matrimonios forzados, abusos sexuales, acoso escolar, maltrato psicológico o emocional, abandono, maltrato institucional. Las formas de maltrato a la infancia son múltiples. [...]

Grup de Recerca en Victimització Infantil i Adolescent (GReVIA), En este documento se presenta el instrumento utilizado en el marco de la investigación “La detección y notificación de la victimización infantil y adolescente en las escuelas de Barcelona” llevada a cabo por el Grup de Recerca en Victimització Infantil i Adolescent (GReVIA) de la Universidad de Barcelona a lo largo del año 2016., Podeu consultar la versió en català a: http://hdl.handle.net/2445/117926

The experience of multiple victimizing life events is known to be particularly harmful and to have an accumulative effect on mental health. Therefore, instruments that measure the whole range of victimizations a person is exposed to are widely needed. The main objective of this study was to confirm the structure of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ screening version) proposed by Finkelhor and to explore its psychometric properties in a sample of school-atten-ding adolescents. A total of 553 adolescents aged 13 to 18 years (60.4% girls) were recruited. The pattern of item endorsement was examined and a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to determine the fit of the conceptual model. The psychometric properties analysed were internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) for the entire JVQ and for each of its five areas, the inter-correlations between these areas, and the instrument’s criterion and concurrent validity. The pattern of JVQ item endorsement was very good. The conceptual model proposed by Finkelhor was confirmed empirically for preceding- year victimization data. The total JVQ achieved a good Cronbach’s alpha for both the preceding-year (.82) and lifetime (.84) measures. Cronbach’s alpha for the different areas of victimization ranged from .49 to .70. Kendall’s tau inter-correlations between areas were positive and nearly all of them were significant. Criterion validity, based on correlations between JVQ areas and YSR DSM-oriented scales, was low, indicating a weak association between victimization and psychopathological symptoms in community adolescents. The results indicate that the JVQ, in its total version more than in its areas of concern, is a useful instrument for screening purposes, especially for analysing victimization during the preceding year., La vivencia de múltiples acontecimientos de victimización es considerada especialmente dañina y posee un efecto acumulativo negativo sobre la salud mental. Se precisan instrumentos que midan el amplio rango de victimizaciones a los puede estar expuesta una persona. El principal objetivo de este estudio es confirmar la estructura del Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) de Finkelhor y explorar sus cualidades psicométricas en una muestra de adolescentes escolarizados en secundaria. La muestra comprende un total de 553 adolescentes de edades comprendidas en 13 y 18 años (60.4% chicas). Se ha examinado el patrón de respuesta, y se ha realizado un análisis factorial confirmatorio de la estructura del JVQ. Se ha analizado la consistencia interna, mediante Alfa de Cronbach, para el conjunto del JVQ y para las cinco áreas que lo configuran. También se ha calculado las inter-correlaciones entre las áreas, y la validez criterial y concurrente. Se obtuvo un patrón de respuesta aceptable. El modelo conceptual propuesto por Finkelhor se confirma empíricamente para los datos referidos a las victimizaciones ocurridas en el último año. El conjunto del JVQ obtiene buenos índices Cronbach para los datos referidos al último año (.82) y a lo largo de la vida (.84). Los índices para las diferentes áreas de victimización se sitúan entre .49 y .70. Las inter-correlaciones Kendall-Tau entre las áreas son positivas y en su mayoría significativas. La validez de criterio, basada en las correlaciones entre las áreas del JVQ y las escalas YSR-DSM han sido bajas, indicando una débil asociación entre victimización y síntomas psicopatológicos en adolescentes de secundaria. Los resultados indican que el JVQ, en su versión global más que en sus áreas de victimización es un instrumento útil para funciones de cribado, especialmente para las victimizaciones ocurridas en el último año.