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Since its third phase (dated 2016), EMODnet Chemistry's scope of attention has been expanded with gathering data and developing access to data and data products for Marine Litter. This document gives background information about EMODnet strategy for marine litter (beach and seafloor) data collection, its synergy with existing information systems and achievements of EMODnet Chemistry so far. Thereafter it gives detailed information on how to deal with marine litter data from beaches and seafloor trawlings and, in particular, the formats to be used for gathering and describing this type of marine litter data sets by EMODnet Chemistry participants on a European scale. Published We acknowledge the fundamental contribution of EMODnet Chemistry Steering Committee and Technical Working Group, MSFD Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter, Regional Sea Conventions (OSPAR, HELCOM, UNEP/MAP Barcelona Convention, BSCS Black Sea Commission), ICES, ARPA FVG, CEFAS. We also acknowledge the contribution of the following EU-projects: BASEMAN, PERSEUS, MEDITS, DeFishGear, EMBLAS. Refereed Current 14.1 Marine debris Mature International Method Specification of criteria

Since its third phase (dated 2016), EMODnet Chemistry's scope of attention has been expanded with gathering data and developing access to data and data products for Marine Litter. This document gives background information about EMODnet strategy for marine litter (beach and seafloor) data collection, its synergy with existing information systems and achievements of EMODnet Chemistry so far. Thereafter it gives detailed information on how to deal with marine litter data from beaches and seafloor trawlings and, in particular, the formats to be used for gathering and describing this type of marine litter data sets by EMODnet Chemistry participants on a European scale. Published We acknowledge the fundamental contribution of EMODnet Chemistry Steering Committee and Technical Working Group, MSFD Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter, Regional Sea Conventions (OSPAR, HELCOM, UNEP/MAP Barcelona Convention, BSCS Black Sea Commission), ICES, ARPA FVG, CEFAS. We also acknowledge the contribution of the following EU-projects: BASEMAN, PERSEUS, MEDITS, DeFishGear, EMBLAS. Refereed Current 14.1 Marine debris Mature International Method Specification of criteria

As part of the 3rd phase of EMODnet Chemistry, the scope of attention has been expanded with gathering data and developing access to data and data products for marine litter. This document gives background information about EMODnet strategy for marine litter data collection, its synergy with existing information systems and achievements of EMODnet Chemistry so far. Thereafter it gives detailed information on how to deal with marine litter data for the scope of the EMODnet Chemistry 3 project and, in particular, the formats to be used for gathering and describing marine litter data sets by EMODnet Chemistry participants on a European scale. Published We acknowledge the fundamental contribution of EMODnet Chemistry Steering Committee and Technical Working Group, MSFD Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter, Regional Sea Conventions (OSPAR, HELCOM, UNEP/MAP Barcelona Convention, BSCS Black Sea Commission), ICES, ARPA FVG, CEFAS. We also acknowledge the contribution of the following EU-projects: BASEMAN, PERSEUS, MEDITS, DeFishGear, EMBLAS. Current 14.1 TRL 1 Basic principles observed and reported Manual (incl. handbook, guide, cookbook etc)

This report presents an ecosystem assessment covering the total land area of the EU as well as the EU marine regions. The assessment is carried out by Joint Research Centre, European Environment Agency, DG Environment, and the European Topic Centres on Biological Diversity and on Urban, Land and Soil Systems. This report constitutes a knowledge base which can support the evaluation of the 2020 biodiversity targets. It also provides a data foundation for future assessments and policy developments, in particular with respect to the ecosystem restoration agenda for the next decade (2020-2030). The report presents an analysis of the pressures and condition of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems using a single, comparable methodology based on European data on trends of pressures and condition relative to the policy baseline 2010. The following main conclusions are drawn: - Pressures on ecosystems exhibit different trends. - Land take, atmospheric emissions of air pollutants and critical loads of nitrogen are decreasing but the absolute values of all these pressures remain too high. - Impacts from climate change on ecosystems are increasing. - Invasive alien species of union concern are observed in all ecosystems, but their impact is particularly high in urban ecosystems and grasslands. - Pressures from overfishing activities and marine pollution are still high. - In the long term, air and freshwater quality is improving. - In forests and agroecosystems, which represent over 80% of the EU territory, there are improvements in structural condition indicators (biomass, deadwood, area under organic farming) relative to the baseline year 2010 but some key bio-indicators such as tree-crown defoliation continue to increase. This indicates that ecosystem condition is not improving. - Species-related indicators show no progress or further declines, particularly in agroecosystems. The analysis of trends in ecosystem services concluded that the current potential of ecosystems to deliver timber, protection against floods, crop pollination, and nature-based recreation is equal to or lower than the baseline value for 2010. At the same time, the demand for these services has significantly increased. A lowered potential in combination with a higher demand risks to further decrease the condition of ecosystems and their contribution to human well-being. Despite the wide coverage of environmental legislation in the EU, there are still large gaps in the legal protection of ecosystems. On land, 76% of the area of terrestrial ecosystems, mainly forests, agroecosystems and urban ecosystems, are excluded from a legal designation under the Bird and Habitat Directives. Freshwater and marine ecosystems are subject to specific protection measures under the Water Framework and Marine Strategy Framework Directives. The condition of ecosystems that are under legal designation is unfavourable. More efforts are needed to bend the curve of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and to put ecosystems on a path to recovery. The progress that is made in certain areas such as pollution reduction, increasing air and water quality, increasing share of organic farming, the expansion of forests, and the efforts to maintain marine fish stocks at sustainable levels show that a persistent implementation of policies can be effective. These successes should encourage us to act now and to put forward an ambitious plan for the restoration of Europe’s ecosystems., JRC.D.3-Land Resources

Measures against marine litter require quantitative data for the assessment of litter abundance, trends and distribution. While beach litter monitoring has been ongoing in some European areas since years, so far it was yet not possible to obtain an overview and to analyse litter abundance, litter category distribution and trends at the different spatial scales from local to EU. Therefore, the EU Marine Directors and the Marine Strategy Coordination Group mandated, in the context of the MSFD implementation, to the MSFD Technical Group on Marine Litter and the JRC, the compilation and analysis of an EU beach litter dataset. Aim was to derive EU Marine Beach Litter Baselines at different spatial levels. After collection of European beach litter data from EU Member States via the EMODNET chemistry module database, harmonisation of data formats, clean-up a 2012-2016 dataset was derived. Following the spatio-temporal aggregation of data and the identification of possible litter category analysis, different scenarios for baseline setting have been tested and evaluated. The application of agreed scenario parameters has enabled the calculation of marine beach litter baselines for the years 2015 and 2016 at spatial scales ranging from country and country –region level to sub-regional, regional and EU level. Litter categories have been aggregated and allow analysis of group categories up to EU level, whereas the analysis of single categories could not include all received data due to non-comparable litter type category descriptions. The resulting set of baselines enables the future monitoring of progress in reduction, as well as compliance checking developed using the dataset. Furthermore, it provides valuable information for future improving harmonised monitoring through updated guidance, common data treatment and agreed data reporting formats. Beach litter abundance has been found to be very high in large areas of Europe, requiring joint and strong action in Europe and with the neighbours in shared marine basins., JRC.D.2-Water and Marine Resources

Plastics and other artificial materials pose new risks to the health of the ocean. Anthropogenic debris travels across large distances and is ubiquitous in the water and on shorelines, yet, observations of its sources, composition, pathways, and distributions in the ocean are very sparse and inaccurate. Total amounts of plastics and other man-made debris in the ocean and on the shore, temporal trends in these amounts under exponentially increasing production, as well as degradation processes, vertical fluxes, and time scales are largely unknown. Present ocean circulation models are not able to accurately simulate drift of debris because of its complex hydrodynamics. In this paper we discuss the structure of the future integrated marine debris observing system (IMDOS) that is required to provide long-term monitoring of the state of this anthropogenic pollution and support operational activities to mitigate impacts on the ecosystem and on the safety of maritime activity. The proposed observing system integrates remote sensing and in situ observations. Also, models are used to optimize the design of the system and, in turn, they will be gradually improved using the products of the system. Remote sensing technologies will provide spatially coherent coverage and consistent surveying time series at local to global scale. Optical sensors, including high-resolution imaging, multi- and hyperspectral, fluorescence, and Raman technologies, as well as SAR will be used to measure different types of debris. They will be implemented in a variety of platforms, from hand-held tools to ship-, buoy-, aircraft-, and satellite-based sensors. A network of in situ observations, including reports from volunteers, citizen scientists and ships of opportunity, will be developed to provide data for calibration/validation of remote sensors and to monitor the spread of plastic pollution and other marine debris. IMDOS will interact with other observing systems monitoring physical, chemical, and biological processes in the ocean and on shorelines as well as the state of the ecosystem, maritime activities and safety, drift of sea ice, etc. The synthesized data will support innovative multi-disciplinary research and serve a diverse community of users.

As part of the 3rd phase of EMODnet Chemistry the scope of attention has been expanded with gathering data and developing access to data and data products for Marine Litter. This document gives background information about EMODnet, its synergy with SeaDataNet and achievements of EMODnet Chemistry so far. Thereafter it gives the scope of the EMODnet Chemistry 3 project and in particular a proposal for gathering and managing data sets on micro-litter by EMODnet Chemistry partners on a European scale. The Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter (TSG ML) reviewed the proposal and provided feedback for refinement that were followed to update the present document. Published Refereed Current Guide

As part of the 3rd phase of EMODnet Chemistry the scope of attention has been expanded with gathering data and developing access to data and data products for Marine Litter. This document gives background information about EMODnet, its synergy with SeaDataNet and achievements of EMODnet Chemistry so far. Thereafter it gives the scope of the EMODnet Chemistry 3 project and in particular a proposal for gathering and managing data sets on micro-litter by EMODnet Chemistry partners on a European scale. The Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter (TSG ML) reviewed the proposal and provided feedback for refinement that were followed to update the present document. Published Superseded (by http://dx.doi.org/10.25607/OBP-495) TRL 1 Basic principles observed and reported Guide

Marine litter is a global concern that represents a threat to all life in the oceans and seas. Reducing litter in the marine environment is recognised as a priority challenge to help preserve the ecosystem and human health. Marine litter, in particular marine plastics, and its reduction is at the core of political action through the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), the EU Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy and the EU Waste Legislation. Quantifying the amount of litter items present in the marine ecosystem is a matter of concern for the MSFD and in general for policies that aim to tackle marine litter. EU marine litter data quality and data management are defined by a complex system of datasets, in which a heterogeneity of protocols are still in use at regional and national levels. In accordance with the implementation of Good Environmental Status (GES) and other aspects of the MSFD, adopting consistent and harmonised criteria and methodological standards ensures consistency of data and the possibility of meaningful comparison between marine regions and subregions. Defining the best possible data management strategy and identifying the most valuable methodology have been pursued by the Joint Research Council (JRC) and the European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODnet) Chemistry network, within the TG Litter, with the main goal of delivering a single database able to handle marine litter data at European scale. This report proposes a tailor-made standard procedure on a European scale and lists challenges and hindrances faced during the compilation of beach litter data collected by the countries bordering the European seas, generating the first pan-European beach litter database. The analysis has primarily involved data from 22 European countries and four marine regions. In total 3 063 surveys were performed on 389 European beaches over the period 2012 to 2016. In addition, data from non-European countries facing the seas around Europe have also been included in the database. The biggest challenge faced during the data-compiling phase was dealing with the heterogeneity related to differences in data formats, data quality and protocols used during the beach surveys. A huge effort has been made to handle a varied set of data to guarantee efficient management of the data. The resulting harmonised marine litter database will be made accessible through the EMODnet Chemistry website. A more dynamic and tailored set of products, including datasets and maps for other marine litter compartments, is currently in development. Furthermore, this report gives a complete outlook on further harmonisation approaches in other marine litter topics. The report also provides inputs to develop and implement the most efficient management of data to facilitate data-driven decisions in European policies., JRC.D.2-Water and Marine Resources

The MEDWAVES (MEDiterranean out flow WAter and Vulnerable EcosystemS) cruise targeted areas under the potential influence of the MOW within the Mediterranean and Atlantic realms. These include seamounts where Cold-water corals (CWCs) have been reported but that are still poorly known, and which may act as essential “stepping stones” connecting fauna of seamounts in the Mediterranean with those of the continental shelf of Portugal, the Azores and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. During MEDWAVES sampling has been conducted in two of the case studies of ATLAS: Case study 7 (Gulf of Cádiz-Strait of Gibraltar-Alboran Sea) and Case study 8 (Azores). The initially targeted areas in the Atlantic were: the Gazul Mud volcano, in the Gulf of Cádiz (GoC) area, included in the case study 7, and the Atlantic seamounts Ormonde (Portuguese shelf) and Formigas (by Azores), both part of the case study 8. In the Mediterranean the targeted areas were The Guadiaro submarine canyon and the Seco de los Olivos (also known as Chella Bank) seamount. Unfortunately it was not possible to sample in Guadiaro due to time constraints originated by adverse meteorological conditions which obligate us to reduce the time at sea focusing only in 4 of the 5 initially planned areas. MEDWAVES was structured in two legs; the first leg took place from the 21st September (departure from Cádiz harbour in Spain) to the 13th October 2016 (arrival in Ponta Delgada, São Miguel, Azores, Portugal took place the 8th of October due to the meteorological conditions that obligated to conclude the first leg earlier as planned). during the Leg 1 sampling was carried out in Gazul, Ormonde and Formigas. The second leg started the 14th October (departure from Ponta Delgada) and finished the 26th October (arrival in Málaga harbour, Spain). MEDWAVES had a total of 30 effective sampling days, being 6 days not operative due to the adverse meteorological conditions experienced during the first leg which forced us to stay in Ponta Delgada from the 08th to the 13th October. During MEDWAVES the daily routine followed a similar scheme, depending of course on the weather and sea conditions. The main activity during the day, starting early in the morning (around 08:00 AM, once the night activities were finished), was the ROV deployment. Generally a single ROV dive of around 8 hours was performed, however in several occasions two dives were carried out in the same day (see General station list, Appendix II). After the ROV (and sometimes between two dives) the Box Corer and/or Van Veen Grab and/or Multicore was deployed. After these activities, during the night CTD-Rosette deployments and MB was conducted. Accordingly to this schema the scientific personnel worked in the day or in the night watch. A total of 215 sampling stations have been covered in MEDWAVES, using the following sampling gears: Multibeam echosounder, CTD-Rosette, LADCP, Box Corer, Van Veen Grab, Multicorer and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). Table 1 sumamrised the number of sampling stations conducted with each gear in each sampling zone. Additionally MB surveys have been conducted during the transits between areas.

The MEDWAVES (MEDiterranean out flow WAter and Vulnerable EcosystemS) cruise targeted areas under the potential influence of the MOW within the Mediterranean and Atlantic realms. These include seamounts where Cold-water corals (CWCs) have been reported but that are still poorly known, and which may act as essential “stepping stones” connecting fauna of seamounts in the Mediterranean with those of the continental shelf of Portugal, the Azores and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. During MEDWAVES sampling has been conducted in two of the case studies of ATLAS: Case study 7 (Gulf of Cádiz-Strait of Gibraltar-Alboran Sea) and Case study 8 (Azores). The initially targeted areas in the Atlantic were: the Gazul Mud volcano, in the Gulf of Cádiz (GoC) area, included in the case study 7, and the Atlantic seamounts Ormonde (Portuguese shelf) and Formigas (by Azores), both part of the case study 8. In the Mediterranean the targeted areas were The Guadiaro submarine canyon and the Seco de los Olivos (also known as Chella Bank) seamount. Unfortunately it was not possible to sample in Guadiaro due to time constraints originated by adverse meteorological conditions which obligate us to reduce the time at sea focusing only in 4 of the 5 initially planned areas. MEDWAVES was structured in two legs; the first leg took place from the 21st September (departure from Cádiz harbour in Spain) to the 13th October 2016 (arrival in Ponta Delgada, São Miguel, Azores, Portugal took place the 8th of October due to the meteorological conditions that obligated to conclude the first leg earlier as planned). during the Leg 1 sampling was carried out in Gazul, Ormonde and Formigas. The second leg started the 14th October (departure from Ponta Delgada) and finished the 26th October (arrival in Málaga harbour, Spain). MEDWAVES had a total of 30 effective sampling days, being 6 days not operative due to the adverse meteorological conditions experienced during the first leg which forced us to stay in Ponta Delgada from the 08th to the 13th October. During MEDWAVES the daily routine followed a similar scheme, depending of course on the weather and sea conditions. The main activity during the day, starting early in the morning (around 08:00 AM, once the night activities were finished), was the ROV deployment. Generally a single ROV dive of around 8 hours was performed, however in several occasions two dives were carried out in the same day (see General station list, Appendix II). After the ROV (and sometimes between two dives) the Box Corer and/or Van Veen Grab and/or Multicore was deployed. After these activities, during the night CTD-Rosette deployments and MB was conducted. Accordingly to this schema the scientific personnel worked in the day or in the night watch. A total of 215 sampling stations have been covered in MEDWAVES, using the following sampling gears: Multibeam echosounder, CTD-Rosette, LADCP, Box Corer, Van Veen Grab, Multicorer and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). Table 1 sumamrised the number of sampling stations conducted with each gear in each sampling zone. Additionally MB surveys have been conducted during the transits between areas.

Reducing litter in the coastal and marine environment is a major and prior challenge to preserve biota, ecosystems, as well as goods and services that humans derive from seas and oceans. The identification of the most abundant beach litter items, the so-called Top Marine Litter Items, is a matter of concern for the MSFD, the upcoming EU Plastics Strategy and in general for the prioritisation of measures against marine litter. Specific measures are needed to prevent further inputs and reduce the abundance of litter items. Based on a compiled beach litter data set from 2016, most abundant items on EU beaches have been identified. The quantification of items through beach litter monitoring enables a ranking of items based on their numerical abundance. While a few studies from Regional Sea Conventions (RSCs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and research projects have ranked items by their occurrence on beaches at different spatial scales, there was no EU wide analysis available. The report has been developed by JRC within the TG Marine Litter. It lists an updated compilation of available studies and publications of top item lists. Different calculation methods, leading to different results, have been described and applied on a set of European beach litter data that had been collected within the TG Marine Litter. Data is based on 1-year sampling (2016) and included the outcome from monitoring programs, clean-up campaigns and research projects. Results, also with focus on single use products, have been provided in support to the development of the EU Plastics Strategy. The data analysis involved spatial-temporal data grouping at European, regional and national level, including also seasonal variability of beach litter. A total of 355671 marine litter items have been recorded during 679 surveys on 276 European beaches. Furthermore the report gives a brief outlook on the potential consideration of risk-related item properties, leading to a prioritization based on potential harm. The report should provide information in order to develop and implement most efficient measures against marine litter., JRC.D.2-Water and Marine Resources

A current EU geographical distribution of spatial information for the 37 Invasive Alien Species (IAS) of Union concern (IAS Regulation 1143/2014) is set, based on the best available knowledge, resulting from an assessment of data aggregated through the European Alien Species Information Network (EASIN) in collaboration with the Member States (MS) Competent Authorities of 18 EU countries. This baseline is an important tool supporting the implementation of the IAS Regulation and also provides a factual basis for the review of the application of the IAS Regulation. Ultimately, the information included can be used for monitoring the achievement of Target 5 of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 for combatting IAS, but also to the implementation of other EU policies with requirements on alien species, such as the Birds and Habitats Directives, and the Marine Strategy and Water Framework Directives., JRC.D.2-Water and Marine Resources

Tesis doctoral inédita leída en la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biología. Fecha de lectura: 28-11-2014.

[EN] Scientific knowledge on phylogeny, phylogeography and genetic population of Scleractinia is mainly based on shallow and tropical corals, and only few works involved deep-sea and azooxanthellate corals, whose species composed half of the total number of corals identified so far. Just recently, the scleractinian species Desmophyllum dianthus (Esper, 1794) has received some attention in biological studies, but its phylogeny and population genetics has been slightly explored. The aim of this Thesis is to analyse its phylogenetic relationship at inter and intra-family level, and its population structure, through a multidisciplinary approach. In order to achieve the phylogenetic objective and because the genus belongs to the well known polyphyletic Caryophylliidae family, distinct caryophylliids species are analysed with molecular markers commonly used in the studies of phylogenetic relationships of Scleractinia, and additionally new ones are here developed by high-throughput Illumina sequencing. At intraspecific level, since D. dianthus is one of few corals widespread distributed, several individuals from different areas of both northern and southern hemispheres are analysed, with 30 new microsatellites developed by pyrosequencing 454, giving a picture of its population genetics on a global scale. Additional analyses are performed with morphological characters of skeleton and polyps to define the high level of morphological variability that characterized D. dianthus. Furthermore, the complete mitochondrial genome of two specimens from Mediterranean Sea and southwestern Pacific are also sequenced and comparative analyses are performed in order to clarify phylogenetic relationship of closely related species. Data revealed that D. dianthus belongs phylogenetically to scleractinian “robust group” in one of the Caryophylliidae polyphyletic clades, and its extremely high morphology variability has not showed ecological or geographical pattern. Specific population structures are detected for northern and southern hemispheres, with an isolation by distance model of gene flow (IBD). Moreover, deep currents play a key role on larval dispersal, creating peculiar genetic barriers or genetic connectivity between D. dianthus populations, such as New Zealand and Chile, whose populations presented own genetic characteristics, or Australia and Argentina, whose gene flow is detected despite the large geographic distance between them. Finally, a surprising genetic similarity, throughout several nuclear and mitochondrial molecular markers characterized by different mutation rates and polymorphism level, was found between D. dianthus and the main deep-water coral reef builder Lophelia pertusa, Even though scientific community still have to face several unanswered questions over phylogeny and phylogeography of Scleractinia, and overall much more additional data and analyses are needed, the results of this study provide the first detailed insight on phylogeny and genetic population of the deep-sea coral species D. dianthus. Moreover, genetic similarity between D. dianthus and L. pertusa demonstrated the need for a complete taxonomic revision of the genera and family Caryophylliidae. In this Thesis new molecular tools are provided to tackle this goal, both at phylogeny and phylogeographic level., [ES] El conocimiento científico de la filogenia, filogeografía y genética de poblaciones de Scleractinia, se basa principalmente en estudios llevados a cabo en corales de aguas someras y tropicales, y sólo unos pocos incluyen corales azooxantelados y de aguas profundas, si bien sus especies constituyen la mitad del número total de las especies de corales identificadas hasta el momento. Sólo recientemente, la especie escleractinia Desmophyllum dianthus (Esper, 1974) ha sido objeto de cierta atención en estudios biológicos, aunque han sido marginalmente explorados aspectos sobre sus relaciones filogenéticas y la estructura genética de sus poblaciones. Por tanto, el objetivo central de esta Tesis es precisamente analizar la relación filogenética de la especie a nivel inter y intra-familiar, y la genética de sus poblaciones, todo ello a través de un enfoque multidisciplinario. Con el fin de alcanzar el objetivo filogenético, teniendo en cuenta que el género pertenece a la familia Caryophylliidae, bien conocida por su carácter polifilético, distintas especies de cariofílidos han sido analizadas con marcadores moleculares comúnmente utilizados en los estudios de relaciones filogenéticas de Scleractinia y, además, nuevos marcadores han sido aquí desarrollados gracias a la aplicación de metodologías de secuenciación masiva. A nivel intraespecífico, puesto que D. dianthus es uno de los escasos corales ampliamente distribuidos, se han podido analizar individuos de distintas áreas de ambos hemisferios, norte y sur. Para este estudio de diferenciación genética poblacional a escala global, se han empleado 30 nuevos microsatélites desarrollados a través de técnicas de pirosecuenciación. Por otra parte, y con el fin de delimitar el alto nivel de variabilidad morfológica que caracteriza a D. dianthus, se han llevado a cabo análisis de los esqueletos y de los pólipos con caracteres morfológicos. Finalmente, se ha secuenciado el genoma mitocondrial completo de dos ejemplares del mar Mediterráneo y del suroeste del Pacífico, realizando análisis comparativos con especies próximas, con el fin de aclarar la relación filogenética de ciertas especies estrechamente relacionadas. Los datos revelaron que D. dianthus pertenece filogenéticamente al grupo ‘robusto’ de los escleractínidos, en uno de los clados polifiléticos de Caryophyllidae. Por su parte, su extremadamente alta variabilidad morfológica no ha mostrado patrones ecológicos o geográficos. En cuanto a la estructura genética de sus poblaciones, se ha detectado una cierta diferenciación entre los ejemplares procedentes de los hemisferios norte y sur, con un modelo de flujo génico de aislamiento por distancia. Las corrientes profundas parecen desempeñar un papel clave en la dispersión de las larvas, creando peculiares barreras o, por el contrario, conectividad genética entre las poblaciones de D. dianthus, tal como ocurre con las procedentes de Nueva Zelanda y Chile, cuyas poblaciones presentaron características genéticas propias, o las de Australia y Argentina, entre las que se ha detectado un cierto flujo génico, a pesar de la gran distancia geográfica que existe entre las dos regiones. Por último, se ha encontrado una sorprendente similitud genética, a través de diferentes marcadores moleculares de origen nuclear y mitocondrial caracterizados por diferentes tasas de mutación y niveles de polimorfismo, entre D. dianthus y el principal coral constructor de arrecifes de mares profundos Lophelia pertusa. Como con los objetivos planteados, en esta Tesis se han desarrollado nuevas herramientas moleculares, que han permitido conocer de forma más precisa los procesos que han modulado la historia evolutiva de D. dianthus, y que pueden resultar igualmente útiles para el análisis de especies cercanas., Results of Chapter I adapted from: Addamo AM, Reimer JD, Taviani M, Freiwald A, Machordom A. Desmophyllum dianthus (Esper, 1794) in the scleractinian phylogeny and its intraspecific diversity. PLoS ONE 7(11): e50215 (2012), doi: 10,1371/journal.pone.0050215, handle: http://hdl.handle.net/10261/134186, Results of Chapter II adapted from: Addamo AM, Vertino A, Martínez-Baraldés I, López-González PJ, Taviani M, Machordom A. Morphological polymorphism of Desmophyllum dianthus (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) over a wide ecological and biogeographic range: Stability in deep habitats? Zoologischer Anzeiger - A Journal of Comparative Zoology 259: 113-130 (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jcz.2015.10.004, http://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/134222, Results of Chapter III adapted from: Addamo AM, García Jiménez R, Taviani M, Machordom A. Development of microsatellite markers in the deep-dea cup coral Desmophyllum dianthus by 454 sequencing and cross-species amplifications in Scleractinia Order. Journal of Heredity 106(3): 322-330 (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esv010. http://hdl.handle.net/10261/134279, Results of Chapter VI adapted from: Addamo AM, Vertino A, Stolarski J, Garcia R, Taviani M, Machordom A. Merging scleractinian genera: the overwhelming genetic similarity between solitary Desmophyllum and colonial Lophelia. BMC Evolutionary Biology 16(1): 108 (2016), http://hdl.handle.net/10261/134210