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Purpose: An unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) test is used for in vitro or in vivo genotoxicity evaluation. The UDS test with hepatocytes is well established; however, drug exposure levels at the application site for topically administered drugs (e.g. ophthalmic drugs) often exceed the exposure levels for systemic administration. To establish in vivo genotoxicity on the ocular surface, we performed the UDS test using rabbit corneas from eyes subjected to instillation of genotoxic agents., Materials and Methods: Five genotoxic agents - 1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium dichloride (paraquat); acridine orange; ethidium bromide; acrylamide; and 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4-NQO) - were instilled once onto both eyes of male Japanese white rabbits. Physiological saline or a general vehicle for ophthalmic solution were instilled as the negative controls. Dimethyl sulfoxide was instilled as the vehicle control. Isolated corneas were incubated with tritium-labelled thymidine and the number of sparsely labelled cells (SLCs, cells undergoing UDS) was counted by autoradiography., Results: Statistically significant increases in the mean appearance rates of SLCs in the corneal epithelium were noted in paraquat-, acridine orange-, ethidium bromide-, and 4-NQO-treated eyes compared with those of the controls. These increases generally appeared in a dose-dependent manner. Acrylamide did not induce an increase in the mean appearance rates of SLCs, presumably because it caused the generation of fewer metabolites in the cornea., Conclusions: UDS tests revealed DNA damage in the cornea epitheliums treated with well-known genotoxic agents. These results suggest that the UDS test is one of the useful tools for the assessment of in vivo genotoxicity on the ocular surface in the development of ophthalmic drugs.

Manufacturing of liposomal nanomedicines (e.g. Doxil®/Caelyx®) is a challenging and slow process based on multiple-vessel and batch processing techniques. As a result, the translation of these nanomedicines from bench to bedside has been limited. Microfluidic-based manufacturing offers the opportunity to address this issue, and de-risk the wider adoption of nanomedicines. Here we demonstrate the applicability of microfluidics for continuous manufacturing of PEGylated liposomes encapsulating ammonium sulfate (250 mM). Doxorubicin was subsequently active-loaded into these pre-formed liposomes. Critical process parameters and material considerations demonstrated to influence the liposomal product attributes included solvent selection and lipid concentration, flow rate ratio, and temperature and duration used for drug loading. However, the total flow rate did not affect the liposome product characteristics, allowing high production speeds to be adopted. The final liposomal product comprised of 80-100 nm vesicles (PDI < 0.2) encapsulating ≥ 90% doxorubicin, with matching release profiles to the innovator product and is stable for at least 6 months. Additionally, vincristine and acridine orange were active-loaded into these PEGylated liposomes (≥ 90% and ~100 nm in size) using the same process. These results demonstrate the ability to produce active-loaded PEGylated liposomes with high encapsulation efficiencies and particle sizes which support tumour targeting., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Nucleic acid aptamers can specifically bind to target molecules on the cell membrane that mediate their entrance into the cells. Their small size, high binding affinity, specificity, good biocompatibility, stability and low immunogenicity make them ideal drug delivery systems for cancer therapy. These biopharmaceuticals have potential for the delivery of anticancer compounds to diseased tissues, increasing their effectiveness while mitigating the off-target toxicity towards healthy cells. Herein, we have studied two quadruplex-forming DNA sequences derived from the nucleolin-targeted aptamer AS1411 as supramolecular carriers for the cancer-selective delivery of acridine orange derivatives (C 3 , C 5 and C 8 ) in cervical cancer cells. The devised delivery strategy relied on the non-covalent association of the acridine derivatives and the G-quadruplex (G4) structures. This association is done with a high binding strength, as suggested by the obtained K D values in the 10 -6 -10 -7 M range, leading to the thermal stabilization of the G4 structures, particularly for C 8 . The stability of the resulting supramolecular conjugates was evaluated in fetal bovine serum, which proved their resistance against serum nucleases up to 48 h. Previous studies showed that the tested acridine orange derivatives were cytotoxic towards cervical cancer cells (HeLa) and non-malignant cells. However, when conjugated to AS1411 derivatives, the cytotoxicity of the free ligands towards non-malignant cells was restrained. Furthermore, conjugated C 3 showed an enhanced cytotoxicity against HeLa cancer cells. Confocal microscopy indicated that both G4 sequences appear to colocalize with nucleolin, suggesting their ability to recognize and bind nucleolin on the cell surface. Additionally, the results confirmed the internalization of these delivery systems into HeLa cancer cells and their sustained cell trafficking, although being able to dissociate intracellularly to deliver C 8 to the nucleoli. Overall, we showed that AS1411-derived G4s can be used as a potential cancer drug delivery system for cervical cancer., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

To understand the burgeoning challenges of metastasis, a microchannel of 35 μm diameter, constricted to 7 μm for a distance of 200 μm in a total length of 3 mm, was designed and fabricated using a mask aligner made of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to mimic in vivo capillaries. A thin glass cover-slide was mounted on top to monitor the motion of single or aggregated malignant HeLa cells (size 17-30 μm) microscopically through the constricted microchannel at a constant flow rate of 30 μl/h. Quantitative deconvolution of high-speed videographs of a single cell of 30 μm revealed cellular deformation while passing through constriction, having elongation index, average transit velocity and entry time of 2.67, 18 mm/s and 5.1 ms, respectively. Morphological analysis of live and apoptotic cells by dual staining with Acridine Orange/Ethidium Bromide demonstrated retention of a significant viable cell population after exit through the constriction and a viability index of 50% was quantified by dye exclusion assay. The cumulative data for microfluidic parameters, morphology and relevant metastatic MMP2 gene expression efficiency measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed retention of virulence potency that could possibly cause metastasis, would be beneficial in developing futuristic MEMS device for cancer theranostics.

Background: We investigated the long-term clinical efficacy of acridine orange (AO) therapy on the inhibition of local recurrence after marginal or intra-lesional tumor resection in high-grade soft tissue sarcomas (STSs)., Methods: Our study consisted of 48 patients with STSs who received AO therapy after marginal or intra-lesional resection. The median and mean follow-up durations were 76 and 78 months, respectively. Our AO therapy procedure was combined with photodynamic surgery, photodynamic therapy, and radiodynamic therapy., Results: There were 25 men and 23 women, with a mean age of 46 years. The average tumor size at surgery was 8.5 cm. At the last follow-up, 11 patients developed local recurrence. The 5- and 10-year local recurrence-free rates were 78.9% and 73.3%, respectively. In multivariate analysis, tumor size remained significant for local control. None of the patients developed systemic or local complications. All patients recovered activities of daily life before AO therapy., Conclusion: AO therapy can be performed in safety and may be a useful therapy for acquiring long-term local control in patients with high-grade STSs. Tumor size is an important factor for the indication of AO therapy., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Photodynamic therapy combines the effects of a chemical agent with the physical energy from light or radiation to result in lysis of cells. Acridine orange (AO) is a molecule with fluorescence properties that has been demonstrated to possess photosensitizing properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the photodynamic effect of AO on glioblastoma cell viability and growth., Methods: Glioblastoma cells (N = 8000 cells/well at 0 hours) were exposed to AO followed by white unfiltered light-emitting diode light. Cultures were exposed to either 10 or 30 minutes of light. The cell number per well was determined at 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours after exposure., Results: A dramatic cytocidal effect of AO after exposure to 10 minutes of white light was observed. There was almost complete eradication of glioblastoma cells over a 72-hour period. Although AO or light alone exhibited some effect on cell growth, it was not as pronounced as the combination of AO and light., Conclusions: This is the first study to our knowledge to demonstrate the photodynamic effect of AO in glioblastoma cells. These data support the need for further studies to characterize and evaluate whether this striking cytotoxic effect can be achieved in vivo. The combination of AO and exposure to white unfiltered light-emitting diode light may have potential future applications in management of glioblastoma., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: A novel approach for photodynamic inactivation of Candida albicans is proposed. This method consists of realizing inactivation using ultraviolet light (254nm) combined with spraying layer-by-layer films of acridine orange., Methods: To evaluate the effectiveness of the approach, the C. albicans were immobilized on quartz slices and covered with the spray layer-by-layer films. The fungi were analyzed using experiments to determine cell viability, as well as by fluorescence and atomic force microscopy., Results: Viability analysis of C. albicans after photodynamic inactivation assisted by the films indicates cell death. The extent of cell death increases as the number of film layers increases. Fluorescence and atomic force microscopy analyses corroborated the cell death of C. albicans, which is posited to be due to damages to the fungi cell wall., Conclusions: Our approach has the potential to be used as an alternative for photodynamic inactivation of C. albicans. In addition, this method could be used in clinical procedures, such as for the decontamination of medical devices., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: A key step of delivering extracellular agents to its intracellular target is to escape from endosomal/lysosomal compartments, while minimizing the release of digestive enzymes that may compromise cellular functions. In this study, we examined the intracellular distribution of both fluorecent cargoes and enzymes by a particle delivery platform made from the controlled blending of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and a random pH-sensitive copolymer., Methods: We utilized both microscopic and biochemical methods to semi-quantitatively assess how the composition of blend particles affects the level of endosomal escape of cargos of various sizes and enzymes into the cytosolic space., Results: We demonstrated that these polymeric particles enabled the controlled delivery of cargos into the cytosolic space that was more dependent on the cargo size and less on the composition of blend particles. Blend particles did not induce the rupture of endosomal/lysosomal compartments and released less than 20% of endosomal/lysosomal enzymes., Conclusions: This study provides insight into understanding the efficacy and safety of a delivery system for intracellular delivery of biologics and drugs. Blend particles offer a potential platform to target intracellular compartments while potentially minimizing cellular toxicity.

Acridine orange (AO) is an antimalarial drug that accumulates into acidic cellular compartments. Lysosomes are quite acidic in cancer cells, and on this basis we have demonstrated that photoactivated AO is selectively toxic in sarcomas. However, photodynamic therapy is only locally effective, and cannot be used to eradicate systemic residual disease. In this study, we have evaluated the activity of non-photoactivated AO on sensitive and chemoresistant osteosarcoma (OS) cells to be considered for the systemic delivery. Since lysosomes are even more acidic in chemoresistant cells (MDR), we found that AO accumulation was significantly higher in the lysosomes of MDR in respect to parental cells, and in both cell types, therapeutic doses of AO significantly inhibited cell growth. However, the level of growth inhibition was inversely related to the level of lysosomal uptake of AO, suggesting that the main target of this agent is indeed extralysosomal. A significant reduction of intracellular ATP content and of the expression of mitochondrial complex III suggests a mitochondrial targeting. Notably, MDR cells showed a lower mitochondrial activity. Finally, the combined treatment of AO with the anticancer agent doxorubicin (DXR) significantly increased chemotoxicity by promoting DXR mitochondrial targeting, as revealed by the further reduction in ATP intracellular content. In conclusion, AO is able to effectively target both sensitive and resistant OS cells through mitotoxicity.

Aim: We undertook studies to determine the lethal dose 50 (LD50) of acridine orange (AO) using mice in order to confirm the safety of intravenous administration of AO., Materials and Methods: We used 40 mice and AO was administered once intravenously. General behavior and mortality were continuously observed for 14 days. At the end of the experiment, all animals were sacrificed for subsequent studies., Results: The LD50 for AO in male and female mice was determined to be 32 mg/kg and 36 mg/kg, respectively. Histopathological abnormalities were observed in only one mouse which died three days after the administration of AO. The other nine mice which died immediately after the administration of AO had no pathological findings in major organs., Conclusion: The clinical use of AO can be kept at 1.0 mg/kg or below and, therefore, intravenous administration of AO might be safe for use as cancer therapy., (Copyright © 2014 International Institute of Anticancer Research (Dr. John G. Delinassios), All rights reserved.)

This work is focused on the development of a plant virus-based carrier system for cargo delivery, specifically 30nm-sized cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV). Whereas previous reports described the engineering of CPMV through genetic or chemical modification, we report a non-covalent infusion technique that facilitates efficient cargo loading. Infusion and retention of 130-155 fluorescent dye molecules per CPMV using DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride), propidium iodide (3,8-diamino-5-[3-(diethylmethylammonio)propyl]-6-phenylphenanthridinium diiodide), and acridine orange (3,6-bis(dimethylamino)acridinium chloride), as well as 140 copies of therapeutic payload proflavine (PF, acridine-3,6-diamine hydrochloride), is reported. Loading is achieved through interaction of the cargo with the CPMV's encapsidated RNA molecules. The loading mechanism is specific; empty RNA-free eCPMV nanoparticles could not be loaded. Cargo-infused CPMV nanoparticles remain chemically active, and surface lysine residues were covalent modified with dyes leading to the development of dual-functional CPMV carrier systems. We demonstrate cargo-delivery to a panel of cancer cells (cervical, breast, and colon): CPMV nanoparticles enter cells via the surface marker vimentin, the nanoparticles target the endolysosome, where the carrier is degraded and the cargo is released allowing imaging and/or cell killing. In conclusion, we demonstrate cargo-infusion and delivery to cells; the methods discussed provide a useful means for functionalization of CPMV toward its application as drug and/or contrast agent delivery vehicle., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Polymersomes (Ps) based on a biodegradable and biocompatible block copolymer of methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG) and poly(D,L-lactide) (PDLLA) in which apeptide sequence, Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-Phe (GFLGF), was introduced in between the two blocks(mPEG-pep-PDLLA) were developed. The peptide linker is cleavable by the lysosomal enzymecathepsin B (Cath B). Ps containing the peptide linker (Ps(pep)) with an average diameter of about 124 nm were prepared by injecting a THF solution of the block copolymer into DI water. The Ps had a membrane thickness of about 15 nm as determined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In order to investigate the enzymatic degradation of the Ps (pep), dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements of Ps(pep) dispersions with different concentrations of Cath B at pH 5.5 and 7.4 were performed as a function of time. A gradual decrease in kilo counts per second (Kcps) of the Ps (pep) over 7 d was observed after incubation of the Ps (pep) dispersions with 5 units/ml of Cath B at pH 5.5 at 37 °C. The size distribution became also bimodal, indicating that aggregation and precipitation of Ps (pep) occurred by disintegration of the Ps (pep) as a result of cleavage of the peptide. The rate of disintegration of the Ps (pep) was depending on the concentration of Cath Band the pH. No changes by DLS were seen when the dispersions were incubated with the enzyme at pH 7.4. Acridine orange (AO) was encapsulated in Ps (pep)as a model drug and rapid release of AO triggered by Cath B degradation of Ps (pep) was observed at pH 5.5. Anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (anti-EGFR) antibody (abEGFR) was immobilized on the surface of Ps(pep)in order to enhance the cellular uptake of Ps (pep). Fluorescein isothiocyanate labeled dextran (40,000 g/mol) (FD40) was incorporated in the Ps (pep) for the cell study and Ps either without peptide or antibody or without both peptide and antibody were used as negative controls. After 3 d exposure to SKBR3 cells, abEGFR-conjugated Ps (pep) (abEGFR-Ps (pep)) were directly bound to the membrane of the cells and were endocytosed more rapidly as compared to Ps (pep)without abEGFR. Intracellular release of FD40 from Ps (pep) was observed, suggesting that the peptide linker in Ps (pep) was cleaved in the lysosomal compartments of the cells leading to Ps (pep) membrane disruption. An Alexa Fluor(®) 488 labeled fragment of anti-mouse IgG (F(ab')(2)A) was also coupled to Ps (pep). Specific binding of the Ps (pep) coupled IgG (F(ab')(2)A) onto SKBR3 cells treated with primary mouse antibody was observed, whereas no binding was found with SKBR3 cells treated with goat antibody., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Mitochondria are attractive targets in photodynamic therapy. Two conjugates: TPP-Rh (a porphyrin-rhodamine B conjugate) and TPP-AO (a porphyrin-acridine orange conjugate), each possessing a single delocalized lipophilic cation, were designed and synthesized as photosensitizers. Their ability to target the mitochondria for photodynamic therapy was evaluated. The conjugates were synthesized by conjugating a monohydroxy porphyrin (TPP-OH) to rhodamine B (Rh B) and acridine orange base (AO), respectively, via a saturated hydrocarbon linker. To evaluate the efficiency of the conjugates as photosensitizers, their photophysical properties and in vitro photodynamic activities were studied in comparison to those of TPP-OH. Although fluorescence energy transfer (FRET) was observed in the conjugates, they were capable of generating singlet oxygen at rates comparable to TPP-OH. Biologically, exciting results were observed with TPP-Rh, which showed a much higher phototoxicity [IC(50), 3.95 microM: irradiation of 400-850 nm light (3 mW cm(-2)) for 1 h] than either TPP-OH or Rh B (both, IC(50), >20 microM) without significant dark toxicity at 20 microM. This improved photodynamic activity might be due to a greater cellular uptake and preferential localization in mitochondria. The cellular uptake of TPP-Rh was 8 and 14 times greater than TPP-OH and Rh B, respectively. In addition, fluorescence imaging studies suggest that TPP-Rh localized more in mitochondria than TPP-OH. On the other hand, TPP-AO showed some dark toxicity at 10 microM and stained both mitochondria and nucleus. Our study suggests that conjugation of photosensitizers to Rh might provide two benefits, higher cellular uptake and mitochondrial localization, which are two important subjects in photodynamic therapy.

A new water-based topical formulation is presented that aims at providing good penetration properties for both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs with as small a disturbance of the skin barrier function as possible. The formulation contains dispersed lipids in a ratio resembling that of human skin. The capacity to deliver is addressed in this first study while the mild effect on skin will be presented later. Three variations of the lipid formulation were investigated by use of pigskin in vitro diffusion cell. The hydrophilic 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF) and the lipophilic acridine orange 10-nonyl bromide (AO) were used as model drug substances. The results showed that the delivery properties of the new formulation exceeded that of the references (vaseline and xanthan gum gel). The effect was largest for lipophilic AO where all lipid matrix formulations were superior in amount detected in the skin. The results for the hydrophilic CF were also promising. Especially efficient was the lipid formulation containing the non-ionic adjuvants tetra ethylene glycol monododecyl ether and polyoxyethylene 23 dodecyl ether. The additional in vivo study suggests that the used in vitro model has qualitative bearing on relevant in vivo situations.

We recently encountered a very rare case of periosteal Ewing's sarcoma (PES), which was treated by surgery followed by photodynamic therapy using acridine orange with radiodynamic therapy. No more than 15 cases of PES have been reported previously in literature. In our case, MRI revealed the tumor to be localized on the cortical surface of the proximal humerus. Histopathological examination of biopsy specimens revealed a small round cell sarcoma suggestive of Ewing's sarcoma or PNET, and immunohistochemistry showed positive staining for MIC2. Although fusion genes EWS-FLI1 and EWS-ERG were undetectable, PES was still considered to be the most likely diagnosis. Therefore, we administered preoperative chemotherapy, as a result of which the tumor shrank to 48% of its original volume. With a view to preserve excellent shoulder and upper limb function, we attempted intralesional tumor resection supported by photodynamic therapy using acridine orange with radiodynamic therapy. After surgery followed by postoperative chemotherapy, the patient has, until the time of writing, had no local tumor recurrence and no evidence of metastatic disease, and can move his shoulder fully and throw a ball well. Since it has been reported that PES has a better prognosis and responsiveness to chemotherapy than intramedullary Ewing's sarcoma, we believe that such reduction surgery with photodynamic therapy might be the strategy of choice to obtain satisfactory limb function in cases of PES.

Escherichia coli O29:H21 is a human enterotoxigenic serotype that produces heat-stable (ST-I) enterotoxin, adheres diffusely to HeLa cells, and presents colonization factor antigen IV (CFA/IV) composed of CS5CS6 surface antigens. In one strain studied the genes for diffuse adherence and CFA/IV (CS5CS6) production were found to be present in the same plasmid encoding ST-I. The virulence plasmid (Ent) presented two unrelated basic replicons homologous to repFIC and repW. Gene(s) encoding diffuse adherence did not share homology with the probe for F1845 fimbrial adhesin which is responsible for this phenotype in other E. coli strains. Ent plasmids containing genes for diffuse adherence have not been described previously.

Purpose: Recent studies have demonstrated that leukocytes play an important role in microcirculatory flow disturbances. A few methods are available to investigate leukocyte dynamics in retinal microcirculation. The authors explored leukocyte dynamics in the retina of rats with acridine orange digital fluorography., Methods: Acridine orange digital fluorography produces high-resolution images from a scanning laser ophthalmoscope with the use of a fluorescent nuclear dye of acridine orange, which has been used for staining nucleic acids of cells in histochemical and cytochemical studies. The images were recorded on S-VHS tapes and were investigated with a personal computer-based image analysis system., Results: Fluorescent leukocytes in the retinal microcirculation were visualized. Highly magnified images could be obtained because of the high dioptric power of the rat eye compared with the primate eye. It was possible to observe leukocyte deformation in narrow capillaries and nuclei of vascular endothelium. At arteriolar bifurcations, leukocytes moved preferentially into the branch with the higher flow rate. "Preferential channels" were identified in which predominantly leukocytes were delivered; the channels were characterized by high flow velocity and a straight, short capillary route. The average leukocyte velocities of the arteries, veins, and capillaries are 29.5 +/- 7.3, 17.4 +/- 5.3, and 1.4 +/- 0.4 mm/second, respectively., Conclusions: This study demonstrates that microcirculatory dynamics of leukocytes can be visualized and analyzed quantitatively in rats in vivo with acridine orange fluorography. This method may be a promising tool to reveal how leukocytes contribute to retinal flow disturbances under various pathologic conditions.

Background: Interferon alfa has been suggested as a possible treatment for choroidal neovascularization. However, retinal complications following interferon therapy have been reported., Objective: To evaluate the effects of interferon alfa on leukocyte dynamics in the rat retinal microcirculation., Methods: Interferon alfa of different doses was intravenously administered in rats. Leukocyte dynamics were observed with acridine orange digital fluorography, which uses a nuclear fluorescent dye of acridine orange and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. This technique allows visualization of leukocyte movements in the retinal microcirculation in vivo., Results: After interferon alfa was administered, leukocytes adhered to vascular walls and became trapped in the retinal microcirculation. Leukocyte trapping was dose-dependent., Conclusions: Interferon alfa increased leukocyte adherence to vascular endothelium and subsequent leukocyte trapping in the retinal capillaries. Interferon alfa may activate leukocytes, and activated leukocytes may be involved in the pathogenesis of microinfarction associated with interferon-induced retinopathy.

We investigated a new method for in vivo evaluation of the retinal microcirculation in rats using a cell-permeant fluorescent dye, acridine orange (AO), which stains cell nuclei and cytoplasm, and a scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO). AO, which binds and interacts with DNA and RNA, and thus stains cell nuclei and cytoplasm, was administered intravenously to rats. Fluorescein angiography was performed after administration of the AO, and fundus images were recorded on S-VHS videotape by means of an SLO. Argon laser was used as an exciter of the dye. The retinal vessels were stained with the dye, rendering the retinal microvasculature clearly visible. Cell nuclei and vessel walls were observed as greater fluorescence and lesser fluorescence, respectively. Leukocytes were also observed as highly fluorescent dots moving through the vessels. The results suggest that SLO visualization of AO uptake by cells may be a useful procedure for the evaluation of retinal microcirculation in vivo in rats.

Purpose: Leukocyte rheology may play a key role in microcirculation because leukocytes have unique properties, such as large cell volume, high cytoplasmic rigidity, and low deformability. However, only a few methods are available to study the dynamic behavior of leukocytes in retinal microcirculation. The authors developed a new method to analyze directly movements of leukocytes in the retinal vessels of primates., Methods: Acridine orange, which has been used as a nuclear stain in histochemistry and cytochemistry, was injected intravenously into cynomolgus monkeys for a vital staining of leukocytes. The fundus image was generated with the argon blue laser and a scanning laser ophthalmoscope. The images were recorded on a magnetic tape and evaluated with a personal computer-based image analysis system., Results: Each leukocyte was recognized as a single fluorescent dot moving in the retinal vessels. It was possible to analyze the spatial and temporal dynamics of individual leukocytes in the capillaries. Some leukocytes passed through the capillaries, plugging transiently under the physiological condition. Leukocytes that stayed in the same position for a few minutes may have stuck to the endothelium as a result of leukocyte-endothelial interactions. In the postcapillary vessels, leukocytes tended to be displaced from the center stream toward the vessel walls. The mean flow velocity of leukocytes in the perifoveal capillary was 0.92 +/- 0.32 mm/sec., Conclusions: This study clearly demonstrated that rheologic behaviors of leukocytes in the retinal microcirculation can be studied through the vital staining with acridine orange in vivo. The authors' results suggest a potential role of leukocytes in retinal vascular flow disturbances. This study may open the door to the investigation of leukocyte hemodynamics in the retinal microcirculation in vivo.

The site of confluence of the artery and the portal vein in the liver still appears to be controversial. Anatomical studies suggested a presinusoidal or an intrasinusoidal confluence in the first, second or even final third of the sinusoids. The objective of this investigation was to study the problem with functional biochemical techniques. Rat livers were perfused through the hepatic artery and simultaneously either in the orthograde direction from the portal vein to the hepatic vein or in the retrograde direction from the hepatic vein to the portal vein. Arterial flow was linearly dependent on arterial pressure between 70 cm H2O and 120 cm H2O at a constant portal or hepatovenous pressure of 18 cm H2O. An arterial pressure of 100 cm H2O was required for the maintenance of a homogeneous orthograde perfusion of the whole parenchyma and of a physiologic ratio of arterial to portal flow of about 1:3. Glucagon was infused either through the artery or the portal vein and hepatic vein, respectively, to a submaximally effective "calculated" sinusoidal concentration after mixing of 0.1 nmol/L. During orthograde perfusions, arterial and portal glucagon caused the same increases in glucose output. Yet during retrograde perfusions, hepatovenous glucagon elicited metabolic alterations equal to those in orthograde perfusions, whereas arterial glucagon effected changes strongly reduced to between 10% and 50%. Arterially infused trypan blue was distributed homogeneously in the parenchyma during orthograde perfusions, whereas it reached clearly smaller areas of parenchyma during retrograde perfusions. Finally, arterially applied acridine orange was taken up by all periportal hepatocytes in the proximal half of the acinus during orthograde perfusions but only by a much smaller portion of periportal cells in the proximal third of the acinus during retrograde perfusions. These findings suggest that in rat liver, the hepatic artery and the portal vein mix before and within the first third of the sinusoids, rather than in the middle or even last third.

Neutrophil segmentonuclear leukocytes and lymphocytes of the human peripheral blood vitally stained with Acridine Orange (AO) in concentrations of 250 and 330 mcg/ml show different fluorescence dynamics. The number of neutrophil segmentonuclear granulocytes with green fluorescence of nuclei decreases, whereas the number of cells with red fluorescence of nuclei increases. As a criterion of this process, time T1/2 is taken during which the number of green-fluorescent cells decreases twofold. With AO concentrations of 250 and 330 mcg/ml, T1/2 is equal to 40 or 5 minutes, resp. The nuclei of lymphocytes within a 60 minutes observation show green fluorescence. This effect is likely to be due to structural-functional peculiarities of neutrophil segmentonuclear granulocytes and lymphocytes.