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Relationships between sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) and age and IQ were investigated in children with autism and/or ADHD covering broader age and IQ ranges than in previous studies. Mothers rated 1436 children with autism and 1,056 with ADHD (2-17 years, IQs 9-149) on Pediatric Behavior Scale SCT items. Increasing age correlated with SCT in the autism, ADHD-Combined, and ADHD-Inattentive samples. SCT prevalence rates were 22% preschool, 29% early childhood, 41% late childhood, and 50% adolescence. Correlations between IQ and SCT were small and negative. SCT was lowest in children with above average intelligence. Children referred for autism and ADHD should be assessed for SCT, irrespective of IQ and age, given SCT's high prevalence and association with social and academic impairment.

Learning Disabilities (LD) are generally disabilities in which individuals with average or above average intelligence are affected. The ability to learn is affected and this may be true for one’s lifetime. Some children may have single learning disability or some may have many overlapping learning disabilities. Learning disability may include disabilities in various areas related to reading, language and mathematics. With the right help at right time, right assessment and remediation, children with LD can and do learn successfully and become winners in the society later. It is a great challenge to identify and diagnose and assist children with learning disability. Based on these facts, it is suggested that the early diagnosis of learning disability in children is essentially important to identify and suggest remedial solutions to the parents. Many times the student himself is not aware that a particular symptom of LD is applicable to him. Sometimes the students are reluctant or hesitant to accept that they possess one or more symptoms of LD. Many researchers have contributed to the detection of these learning Disabilities. This paper provides a survey of the various research work done with this focus. Once the disability is diagnosed the student will be able to learn according to his/her learning requirements/preferences that may lead to positive performance of the LD learner.

Adolescents with psychopathic traits were previously thought to possess above average intelligence and display enhanced aggression. The current study analyzed the relationship between three dimensions of psychopathy (grandiose-manipulative (GM), callous-unemotional (CU), impulsive-irresponsible (II)), and both proactive aggression(PA) and reactive aggression(RA), and further assessed if these relationships were moderated by verbal-intelligence(VIQ) and performance-intelligence(PIQ). Subjects included 159 adolescents (M = 15.5 years, SD = 1.3, 49% male), recruited from a closed treatment institution. Dimensions of psychopathy were assessed with the Youth Psychopathic traits Inventory, aggression with the Reactive and Proactive aggression Questionnaire and intelligence scores by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Regression analysis was performed and results were verified by an alternative, data driven generative discovery analysis. Both CU and II-dimensions were positively related with PA and RA. Adolescents with low VIQ showed stronger positive associations between II and both RA and PA, and less stronger positive association between CU and PA. This was partially consistent with results from the alternative analysis. The present study emphasizes to incorporate verbal-intelligence and sub-dimensions of psychopathy ratings in the understanding and treatment of aggression.

Individuals with the pervasive developmental disorder Asperger's syndrome (AS) are generally of average or above average intelligence and attend mainstream schools. Despite their intelligence, some of the characteristics and challenges associated with AS can impact upon the quality of life they experience at school. Although both males and females are diagnosed with AS, females have been underrepresented and unrepresented in much of the AS research. Consequently, much of what is known about the school experiences of students with AS is based on studies consisting predominately of male perspectives. This article discusses what adult females with AS and parents of females with AS currently attending school wish teachers understood about AS in females. Many of the experiences described by participants indicate there is a lack of understanding about AS, both generally and specifically, in relation to females. Implications of these findings and recommendations for educators and schools are provided, and directions for future research are outlined.

Assessment of cortical sensory and psychological functions in children with classic phenylketonuria during the time period of diet discontinuation did not uncover any significant changes when pre-diet and post-diet termination data were compared. Analysis of relationships among the study variables found that children who had adequate dietary control and who were of average or above average intelligence displayed normal somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP) whereas those children with less adequate dietary control and lower IQ scores had atypical SEP waveforms.

In this study the neural efficiency phenomenon (more efficient brain function in brighter as compared to less intelligent individuals) was investigated regarding differences in intelligence (average vs. above‐average intelligence) and scholastic achievement (achievers vs. underachievers). The cortical activation (assessed by event‐related desynchronisation in the EEG) of 31 male adolescents was measured while performing a verbal and figural version of Posner's letter matching task and two creativity tasks. During the figural Posner task, average intelligent underachievers showed higher frontal activation than similarly intelligent achievers and brighter underachievers, whereas average intelligent achievers showed higher posterior activation. During one creativity task underachievers were frontally less activated than achievers. The results provide first evidence that different achievement levels are also reflected in different levels of cortical activation.

Recently, Dodrill (1997) presented data suggesting that individuals with above average intelligence do not perform any better on neuropsychological tests than those with average intelligence. The current study examines the neuropsychological performance of 157 patients referred for neuropsychological evaluation who were determined to be neurologically normal based on neurodiagnostic procedures. Patients were divided into below average, average, and above average WAIS-R FSIQ ranges, and each group's mean performance on major Halstead-Reitan Battery (HRB) measures and the Wechsler Memory Scale was calculated. Contrary to Dodrill's findings, our results show a clear pattern in which patients with above average FSIQs perform better on the majority of HRB measures and memory measures than do patients with average FSIQs, who in turn perform better than do individuals with below average FSIQs. These results suggest that intellectual status can serve as an effective estimate of expected neuropsychological perform...

We report on an 11-year-old boy with a mild case of Cornelia de Lange syndrome with above average cognitive functioning. De Lange syndrome is one of the classic dysmorphological syndromes, associat...

El síndrome de Asperger es un trastorno generalizado del desarrollo de causa desconocida, caracterizado por la presencia de un léxico pedante, falta de empatía en las relaciones sociales, intereses inusuales, torpeza motora y coeficiente de inteligencia normal o elevado, entre otros síntomas. Desde 1994 está definido como entidad específica.Se describe el caso de un niño afectado por este síndrome,con peso y talla elevados y trastorno de la identidad sexual, alteraciones no descritas en el síndrome de Asperger, hasta este momento, en la literatura científica. : Asperger Syndrome is a pervasive developmental disorder of unknown origin, characterized by pedantic language,lack of reciprocity in social interactions, unusual interests, motor clumsiness and normal or above average intelligence quotient, among other symptoms. Since 1994 it has been defined as a specific entity. We describe the case of a boy with this syndrome, with elevated body weight and height and sexual identity disorder. These alterations have not previously been described in the scientific literature on Asperger syndrome.

It can take a number of years from the specification of a research project to the outcome being of practical benefit to blind and partially sighted people. Since there are finite resources, both of funds and skilled staff, for research, it is important to carefully analyse the likely future unmet needs of the target user population before determining priorities for research. This is not trivial since both technology and user needs will change with time. At present, much of the technological research is targeted at people using non-visual means of communication and who do not have additional impairments. The demographic trends, however, are for an increasing proportion of visually impaired people to have a significant additional impairment. Much of the current technological research relates to developing sophisticated devices for blind people of above average intelligence. Yet, there is an unmet need for many low-cost devices: for instance, devices for opening new types of packaging of domestic products. T...

Persons with learning disabilities comprise an invisible client group and are often overlooked in the reference process. While a learning disability is not a form of mental retardation or an emotional disorder {as has been often believed in the past}, it is a permanent disorder which affects the manner in which individuals with normal or above average intelligence take in, retain and express information. Consequently, the information needs of these potential clients must be approached by means of both different reference strategies and a sensitivity to the special attributes of this client group.

Forty-four elementary school children with average or above average intelligence were found to be 1–2 years behind the expected level of reading ability. They were left to proceed in their conventiona

Everything mankind has and will have in the future is and will be the result of people′s ideas. Ideas are derived not only from people of above average intelligence, but also from those of average intelligence. Some of the more progressive companies in the history of modern management realized the potential value of their employees′ ideas for the improvements in the general functioning of their organizations. They have realized that “idea power is the most tremendous human force in the world”.

The study described in this article explored the attitudes of parents of intellectually handicapped children toward parent-child interaction variables as measured on the Parent As A Teacher Inventory (PAAT) (Strom, 1976). The PAAT instrument was developed for measuring childrearing expectations related to the intellectual and creative development of preschool and kindergarten children ofaverage or above average intelligence. A complete description of the measure, including reliability and validity studies, has been reported earlier (Strom & Hill, 1979; Strom & Johnson, 1978; Strom & Slaughter, 1978). The PAAT had not previously been used with parents of handicapped children. The purpose of this study was to test the assump" tion that many of the' attitudes about appropriate parental response to child behavior related to learning in normal populations would be relevant to effective parent education for this group. Although the parent training accompanying educational programs for iritellectually handicapped children often centers on highly specific skill teaching and its reinforcement, the long range goal is for the child to develop appropriate behavior in various situations arising in the natural environment.

This study examined whether conscious use of phonological knowledge is associated with invented spelling and whether a relation exists between invented spelling and reading. Thirty-two 4-year-olds with scores of 116 or higher on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test were classified as Non-spellers and Inventive Spellers based on their spellings of 10 words on the Invented Spelling Test. All subjects were administered 11 different tasks which examined alphabet knowledge, word segmentation, sound/letter association, and reading knowledge. Results indicated that all subjects displayed a similar ability when required to recite the alphabet, recognize uppercase letter names, segment words into syllables, and identify basic concepts about print. Inventive Spellers demonstrated superiority at letter/sound identification and segmentation of words by phonemes. Although significant differences were observed between Non-spellers and Inventive Spellers on wordknowledge tasks, dramatic differences among Inventive Spellers were evident. Forty-four percent of the Inventive Spellers were found to be Proficient Word Readers whereas the remaining 56% displayed reading proficiency at a similar level as the Non-spellers. A relation was found between spelling ability and conscious use of phonological knowledge; however, word reading appeared to be a related (but separate) ability from word writing.

A classification task, involving the sorting of pictures of plants and animals into major orders and classes, and a standardised test of general intelligence, were administered to randomly selected groups of 12 year old pupils drawn from four comprehensive schools. Sub-samples were selected at random of pupils of above and below average intelligence who had been taught classification either by the “Nuffield” approach or by a “traditional” method. Analysis of variance of the scores obtained showed that although the achievement of the upper intelligence group was superior (1 %level) to that of the lower intelligence group, there was a significant interaction (5 % level) between the method of teaching that had been received and intellectual level. Pupils of above average intelligence generally obtained higher scores when they had been taught by the “Nuffield” method, whereas the achievement of pupils of below average intelligence was generally much greater when they had been taught by a “traditional” method.

Ssmma7y.-Category Test performance of 41 bright aged normals was compared with the performance of 40 young normals and a group of 43 patients with suspected neurological dysfunction. The aged normals were not only as deficient as the neurologic patients but showed a similar pattern of deficits on Category subtests. The extreme difficulty experienced by aged normals and patients on Subtests 111 and IV was explained as a function of task complexity rather than of conceptual difficulty. Further investigation of the relationship between the relative difficulty of conceptual principles and task complexity in a variety of impaired groups was suggested. The extent and frequency of conceptual deficits among normal individuals of advanced age are not dearly established. While some reports suggest aged subjects may experience extreme difficulty with conceptual tasks (Arenberg, 1968; Thaler, 1956), other studies of elderly individuals of above average ability have reported little loss of conceptual ability (Craik, 1968; Schaie & Strother, 1968; Thaler, 1956). Category Test errors have been shown to be correlated with age in both brain-damaged and control patients (Vega & Parsons, 1967), and studies of normal subjects above age 50 reported mean scores approximately equal to those of younger brain-damaged groups (Reitan, 1962; Reed & Reitan, 1963). Age-related deficits on the Category Test have exceeded those on either the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale or the other tests of the Halstead neuropsychological test battery (Reed & Reitan, 1963; Vega & Parsons, 1967; Prigatan0 & Parsons, 1976). Studies have included few subjects above age 60, however, and no groups of above average ability have been studied, so that the complete picture of the relationship between the Category Test and aging is not known. Furthermore only total test scores have been published, although Subtests 111, IV, and V involve different conceptual principles and might show differential patterns of deficit in various subject groups, while Subtest VI continues the principle of V, affording a measure of concept learning with extended trials. The present study compared the Category Test performance of subjects over age 60 of above average intelligence with that of younger normals and of patients with suspected neurological dysfunction. The relative difficulty level of the various subtests was also investigated.

The present study investigated the effects of candy, social, and token rewards on the IQ scores of children of above average intelligence. The results showed that IQ scores increased considerably as a function of token rewards. Social rewards produced only minor changes, and candy rewards produced none.

An Ashkenazi Jewish family is described, in which absence of distal interphalangeal creases of fingers with flexion limitation is transmitted through 4 generations with 8 affected individuals. The malformation is caused by an autosomal dominant gene with full penetrance and variable expressivity, and causes only little inconvenience. In one case the joints were normal on radiological examination. The malformation was not associated with any other anomaly except in the propositus who was referred becaused of profound mental retardation and cerebral palsy. This association is probably fortuitous as the other affected members were of above average intelligence. We were unable to find any report on this anomaly without associated malformations.

The relationship of creative activity to sex-role identity was examined in boys ( N = 80) and girls ( N = 56), aged nine to twelve, of above average intelligence. Endorsement of personal characteristics that cut across sex stereotypes was associated with participation in a wide variety of creative activities. When analyzed by specific activity, the relationship with sex-role followed a consistent pattern for boys and girls combined: male activities such as sports with scores on the masculine scale, female activity such as dance or art with scores on the feminine scale, and sexually indeterminate activities such as drama or social leadership with scores on both scales.

Psychological evaluation is performed both pre- and postimplant as part of the children's cochlear implant program. The purposes are to select appropriate candidates and to study changes over time that may result from the implant. The children in this sample were of above average intelligence as a group, but demonstrated perceptual motor lags and academic underachievement consistent with previous findings for deaf children. Six-month postimplant results show significant improvements in perceptual motor skills, cognitive performance, and academic achievement. Some of these improvements may be the result of a reduction in distractibility and short attention span that was noted for a number of children after implantation. A hypothesis is presented that may explain how the cochlear implant affects this behavior.

Contribution of Educational Research.?It is relatively easy to see the contribution of research to such fields as medicine and invention. It is more difficult, however, to determine objectively the results of research in education, which is concerned with the mental and educational devel opment of youth. It is readily recognized that discoveries of serums, antitoxins, surgical methods, etc., in medicine mean the saving of almost countless human lives. There are equal possibilities for the development of new methods of teaching and of school administration which will pro mote the educational development of children. No one can calculate to what extent the mental lives of large numbers of children have been blighted and stunted by poor teaching and administrative procedures. Swift gives an interesting example of the contribution of educational research.1 A graduate of a western university went to a small town as school superintendent. One morning a distraught mother came to him with the story that the local physician had pronounced her three-year-old boy feeble-minded and had suggested that he be sent to a feeble-minded institution. The chief reason for this diagnosis was that at the age of three he had not yet learned to talk. The school superintendent sug gested that the child be sent to the psychological clinic of the state uni versity. This was done. After a careful examination the psychologist at the clinic told the mother that instead of being a feeble-minded child, her son was above average intelligence. She was advised to allow the boy to play with other children as usual and that in due time he would learn to talk. This was done, and in the course of time the child learned to talk, and later surpassed other children of the same age in his vocabu lary and general attainment. Imagine what might have happened with out the aid of a professionally trained school superintendent and without the facilities of a psychological clinic. Locating Research in Education.?There are three major types of educational literature, classified in terms of form in which it appears

Recent studies have generally shown that placement in first grade is not advisable solely on the basis of a chronological age of six years. For example, Betts1 reports that investigators have found that a mental age of six to six and one-half is essential for suc cessful reading achievement. Hildreth2 states that children below the range from 6 yrs. 3 mos. to 6 yrs. 6 mos. do not succeed as well as older children. On the other hand Gates3 has presented data to indicate that children with a mental age of five can successfully be taught to read when the individual child's abilities are considered and adequate methods and materials are utilized. Furthermore, it has also been shown that children under six with above average intelligence can make satisfactory progress in first grade.4 In addition to the factors of age and intel ligence, other factors are undoubtedly related to reading success in the first grade. These factors have been incorporated into the con cept of reading readiness. These factors imply that the child has had a variety of visual, motor, auditory, and language (verbal) ex perience all related to reading. They include: acquiring a fund of information about objects and events common to childhood; building and making things; playing cooperative games; singing songs and reciting rhymes; listening to stories being told and read; tell ing stories and exploring pictures; drawing, tracing, painting, cutting, and pasting; con versing, talking, acting, and playing language games; etc. Tests have been designed to measure the development of reading readiness and these tests have been proven to be positively re lated to reading achievement. Wright5 found a correlation .44 and .61 between the Metro politan Readiness Tests and the Gates Pri mary Reading Tests and teacher's marks respectively. Monroe6 reported for her read ing aptitude tests a correlation of .75 with reading achievement measured by Gray's Oral Paragraphs and the Iota Word Test. Yet from Monroe's manual it is also brought out that even though children may be deficient in reading aptitude, they may attain average success in reading. Twenty-five percent of those who scored at the 20th percentile on the aptitude tests became average readers. Similarly, Grant7 wrote that "a high readiness score alone does not always assure success in reading; and a low readiness score does not always mean failure." Since children are nevertheless placed in first grade when they are six years of age, the problem facing schools is one of insuring reading success for as many children as possible; with whatever degree of intelligence or of reading readiness they possess. It is the problem of preventing the reported average failure of 20 to 25 percent of first grade children principally because of reading difficulty.8

An examining procedure has been presented which is an elaboration of certain items employed by Henry Head in the examination of aphasics. Statistical results are presented based upon a comparison between the performance of individuals above average intelligence and those at or below the borderline. The responses of individuals to problems of right and left orientation in acts of graded complexity give a fairly accurate approximation to the levels of intellectual functioning obtained in the Bellevue-Wechsler and similar test procedures. The primary emphasis in this examination is the descriptive analytical evaluation which includes the observation of the quality of attention, concentration and interest of the man, qualities of carefulness, carelessness, lack of interest, response to instruction, confusional tendencies, and the ability to reorient and get hold of one's self in a difficult problem-solving situation. These chracteristics are regarded as indicative of the psychobiological functioning of the pe...

The purpose of this study was to determine the test-retest reliability of a new measure of children's language, the Length-Complexity Index (LCI). There were seventeen subjects who participated in this study, seven males and ten females. The subjects were five-year-old children attending Kindergarten in the Sullivan, Illinois Public Schools. Each of the subjects had normal hearing, average or above average intelligence as measured on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn, 1965), no obvious neuromuscular disorders, and American English family language background. None were twins, or had a history of stuttering. All subjects came from middle or lower class socioeconomic level families. Language samples were elicited from these children on three separate occasions within a ten-day period by two examiners. The stimulus material constructed to elicit the verbalizations consisted of three sets of pictures judged to be of interest to five-year-old children. The intraclass correlation coefficient for MLR was ri = .65 for the individual child's responses on subsequent retests of single 50-response language samples. This indicates the considerable variability of MLR as a measure of a child's daily verbal output. The intraclass correlation coefficient for the LCI was ri = .80 for the individual child's responses on subsequent retests of single 50-response language samples. The results indicate that within the limits of this study as a language measure the LCI is not as variable as the MLR; that it tends to measure children's language output more reliably over time. This is interpreted to mean that a composite linguistic analysis of length and complexity will yield a more consistent picture of an individual child's verbal output than will a measure of length alone.

A criterion analysis was carried out on scores relating to socially desirable behaviour, which were obtained from adolescent boys of above average intelligence, selected from the extremes of a distribution for racial prejudice. The variables included self-esteem, esteem for others, anxiety, a lie score, and finally a test of controlled projection yielding estimates of punitive and conventional attitudes. The results suggest that self-esteem, conventional stereotypes and anxiety, each contribute to the variance of the prejudice scores, but that the second and third of these may be responsible for the rigidity factor. An unrealistic self-image regarding socially appropriate behaviour appears to increase the tendency to make prejudiced judgments concerning similar traits in other nationalities.

The reliability of various screening devices has been reported by Imus and, in the dis­ cussion of his paper, others have commented upon the variability of refraction results when the same patient is examined by dif­ ferent specialists or even by the same spe­ cialist at different times. An opportunity to observe the extent of variation in refraction findings has recently been provided us in connection with a study of the effect of a training method upon myopia. As part of that study two ophthalmologists and one optometrist examined, on the same day and under similar conditions, the eyes of 21 different adolescents. The subjects were far above average intelligence, the conditions of the examination ideal, the tests were made in an efficient but leisurely manner, and the examiners made their best efforts to achieve accuracy. Although the number of subjects examined is small, it would seem that these data offer valid evidence in regard to the con­ sistency of clinical findings.

The literature concerning group psychotherapy is briefly reviewed. A report of group psychotherapy in a group of officers recovering from functional psychoses is made. Patients' opinions of this method are reported. It is believed that group psychotherapy is especially adaptable to patients of above average intelligence, and can be used as an adjunct to other forms of therapy. It cannot and should not replace other forms of psychotherapy. It has the special advantage of economy of time. Discussions are carried on in an impersonal manner, patients learn that their illnesses are not individualized, and mass catharsis is noted.

Sixty‐four secondary school children were given a program on probability either by machine or in text form. For some groups the response blanks were already filled in‐‐others constructed their responses. A further condition was making responses either overtly or covertly. Children of above average intelligence constructing their answers were significantly better in post‐test performance if they made covert rather than overt responses. Machine users were poorer than text users because of poor scores made by the response‐prompted machine group (not paralleled in the corresponding text group). Though covert constructed responses were again superior to overt on a test given nine weeks later, the difference was not significant. Details of interactions between the variables and times taken by each group are given.

Groups of children and adolescents of average intelligence, at every age from 6 to 18 years, and college students of slightly above average intelligence were presented with two-disk and three-disk versions of the Tower of Hanoi problem. Criterion was two successive solutions in the minimum number of moves. Ability to reach criterion on the two-disk problem increased to near-perfect performance at age 8. On the three-disk problem, there were two transition periods—one between 7 and 9 years of age, the other between 11 and 14 years of age. The incorrect first move was the largest source of error on the three-disk problem.

Two ethnic groups of Officer Candidates in the Israel Defense Army, one of Eastern and one of Western origin, were compared by means of a Group Behn-Rorschach. The highly significant differences between the two groups on five ink-blot variables, which could have been erronously interpreted as due to personality factors, vanished, when level of education was controlled within the relatively narrow range of above average intelligence. The results of the study support Lindzey's criticism that lack of control of nonpersonality factors severely restricts the validity of projective techniques in cross-cultural research.

The amplitude of the evoked response to the second of a pair of somatosensory stimuli was studied as a function of the interstimulus interval in subject of above average intelligence and in subjects of borderline or retarded intelligence classified as slow learners. Recovery functions were biphasic for both groups but the slow learners showed less recovery of cortical responsiveness at brief interstimulus intervals. The results indicate that recovery functions of the somatosensory evoked responses are related lo behavioral measures as reflected in mild deficits in intellectual performance.

Periodically, children are seen in psychiatric facilities who refuse to speak in school and to strangers, but who can and do speak to certain specific people, usually one or both parents, and sometimes peers. Nearly always, these children speak to their siblings. Elective mutism is the diagnosic term that we have applied to this behavior. This definition excludes all other forms of mutism, including hearing loss, schizophrenia, hysterical aphonia, and aphasia. The children with elective mutism are characteristically immature; most of them have average or above average intelligence and do not seem to suffer from any organic disorder.

Results from three analytic approaches to the records of 548 cadets demonstrate that when deal ing with a population having generally above average intelligence there is little reason to take into consideration rather intelligence when concerned with the validity of the ratings he gives. This is also true for the Peer Rating score received by the rater.

Summary 1.Between 1951 and 1968 a personal series of 19 patients have been examined who after removal of tonsils and adenoids suffered permanent nasal escape during speech. 2.All had had normal speech before operation and were of above average intelligence. 3.The main defects in speech were audible nasal escape and loss of voice projection. 4.Radiological studies always demonstrated a fully mobile soft palate but with a gap between it and the posterior pharyngeal wall. When this gap was occluded by a cartilage implant behind the posterior wall of the pharynx speech returned to normal. 5.Cephalometric measurements suggest that the essential defect is a pharynx deeper than normal, but that such disproportion between palate and pharynx is probably not possible to diagnose before adenoidectomy.

This study evaluated the relation of performance on consetvation tasks (Piaget, 1952) to judgments of quantity on tasks without initial equivalence. Subjects (29 girls and 29 boys) were drawn from 5 kindergarten classes in metropolitan New York City. They were of normal to above average intelligence, with a mean of 5 yr., 3 mo. (SD = 4 mo.). Children were assessed on conservation of number and liquid tasks, each containing two items. Two other tasks for number and liquid were then used without the initial equivalence of traditional conservation tasks. Each child was instructed to find out which container had more in it or whether the containers had the same amount. The number problem consisted of two transparent plastic boxes, one with 8 checkers, the other with 8 plastic pieces varying in size, shape, and color. For the liquid problem, the experimenter screened a plastic champagne glass and an opaque paper cup while she poured 3 oz. of colored liquid in each, then removed the screen. Near the two containers of liquid were a measuring cup, another opaque paper cup of the same size, and two identical clear plastic cups. The experimenter recorded what the child said and did. Scoring of conservation used Gelman's (1969) criteria. On traditional and nontraditional tasks of conservation of number, performance was not closely associated (+ = .21, p > -05). Thirty-one of the 58 children gave nonconserving responses on the traditional tasks. Of these, 12 (39%) succeeded on the number with initial nonequivalence. In most cases, the determinations were based on one-to-one correspondence or counting. Of the 27 children classified as partial or full conservers on number, only 16 (59%) determined that the quantities were equivalent. There was a significant association of performance on both types of liquid tasks (+ = .53, p < .001). All 6 conservers on the traditional conservation of liquid tasks were able to conserve when there was initial nonequivalence of liquid. Eleven of the nonconservers (21%) determined that the quantities were the same and provided sufficient verbal justification to classify them as conservers on this task. In addition, 9 nonconservers (17%) said the two quantities were the same though they could not adequately articulate their reasons. Are the schemata accessed in evaluating quantities with initial equivalence and initial nonequivalence the same? Because there is no relationship between performance on the two types of numerical tasks, it appears that different schemata may be used. One possibility is that the operatory suuctures of novice and expert conservers actually differ (Resnick & Gelman, 1984).