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The first step in the process of utilizing space resources is to identify them, localize them and assess the distribution, composition, and quantity of extra-terrestrial terrigenous material available [1], in other words the mapping of the so-called regolith or real soil according to others [2,3]. The latter will probably play an analogous role as soil does for our civilization on Earth for future extra-terrestrial human settlements. The creation of a lunar resource cartography requires to reach a consensus on the language used to communicate on the soil layers or “horizons”of the upper regolith. Such agreement is a prerequisite for communication, interpretation and classification of soils. On Earth, pedologists have developed an international nomenclature of soil horizons based on interpretative symbols which allow to immediately link soil description to properties and/or genesis of the described layers [4]. Its development during the 20th permits to develop pedological classification in parallel of the soil mapping process. For the Moon, we propose to use characteristics of the lunar regolith such as the Is/FeO maturity index of Morris [5] and the agglutinate content as a first attempt to differentiate soil horizons (see figure 1). Base on those, we propose a labelling system inspired on Earth’s pedology concept but adapted to the Moon context. We expect this work to serve as a starting point for discussions between the planetary scientists community and soil scientists with the aim of building the foundation and concepts of extra-terrestrial soil science for space resources, as already advocated by Cameron in 1963 [6]. References: [1]Abbud-Madrid, A. (2018). Space and Planetary Resources. In: Rossi, A., van Gasselt, S. (eds) Planetary Geology. Springer Praxis Books. Springer, Cham. [2]Certini, G., Scalenghe R., and Amundson, R. (2009) “A view of extraterrestrial soils,” European. Journal of Soil Science.60(6), 1078–1092. [3]Certini, G., Scalenghe, R., 2010. Do soils exist outside Earth? Planet. Space Sci. 58, 1767–1770 [4]IUSS Working Group WRB. 2022. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. 4th edition. International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), Vienna, Austria. [5]Morris, R.V. (1978) Proc. LPSC 9th, 2287- 2297 [6]Cameron, R.E. 1963. (1963) The role of Soil Science in Space Exploration. Space Reviews 2: 297 – 312. [7]Laul J.C. and Papike J.J. (1980) The Apollo 17 drill core:Chemistry of size fractions and the nature of the fused soil. Proc. 11th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 1395-1413 [8]Taylor G.J., Warner R.D. and Keil K. (1979) Stratigraphyand depositional history of the Apollo 17 drill core. Proc.10th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 1159-1184. &nbsp

The likes of Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos now occupy the headlines once dominated by Apollo and Soyuz. Described as New Space versus Old Space, debate surrounds the emerging commercial space industry and the role of nontraditional actors in the evolving contemporary space exploration environment. This article enters this debate by adopting a sociological approach to investigate the role of crowdfunding in financing space exploration today. We interviewed crowdfunded space project creators in disparate locations, from Moscow to Silicon Valley, who attracted capital ranging from $200 to over $1 million. We attempt to uncover their experiences using this distinctly social financing mechanism and find that although crowdfunding is unlikely to solve all of today's research funding conundrums, it does appear to increase access to space in unique ways. We argue, however, that the most interesting dynamic of this phenomenon is the way in which crowdfunding contributes to an increasingly democratic exploration environment and how this might impact space science research and the power structures of the space industry. This article concludes by considering possible implications of this trend and derives practical suggestions for both policymakers and individuals who may be considering the use of crowdfunding to finance space science research and exploration projects.

Meteorites ejected from the surface of the Moon as a result of impact events are an important source of lunar material in addition to Apollo and Luna samples. Here, we report bulk element composition, mineral chemistry, age, and petrography of Miller Range (MIL) 090036 and 090070 lunar meteorites. MIL 090036 and 090070 are both anorthositic regolith breccias consisting of mineral fragments and lithic clasts in a glassy matrix. They are not paired and represent sampling of two distinct regions of the lunar crust that have protoliths similar to ferroan anorthosites. 40Ar-39Ar chronology performed on two subsplits of MIL 090070,33 (a pale clast impact melt and a dark glassy melt component) shows that the sample underwent two main degassing events, one at ~3.88 Ga and another at ~3.65 Ga. The cosmic ray exposure data obtained from MIL 090070 are consistent with a short (~8–9 Ma) exposure close to the lunar surface. Bulk-rock FeO, TiO2, and Th concentrations in both samples were compared with 2-degree Lunar Prospector Gamma Ray Spectrometer (LP-GRS) data sets to determine areas of the lunar surface where the regolith matches the abundances observed on the sample. We find that MIL 090036 bulk rock is compositionally most similar to regolith surrounding the Procellarum KREEP Terrane, whereas MIL 090070 best matches regolith in the feldspathic highlands terrane on the lunar farside. Our results suggest that some areas of the lunar farside crust are composed of ferroan anorthosite, and that the samples shed light on the evolution and impact bombardment history of the ancient lunar highlands.

Lunar meteorites provide important new samples of the Moon remote from regions visited by the Apollo and Luna sample return missions. Petrologic and geochemical analysis of these meteorites, combined with orbital remote sensing measurements, have enabled additional discoveries about the composition and age of the lunar surface on a global scale. However, the interpretation of these samples is limited by the fact that we do not know the source region of any individual lunar meteorite. Here, we investigate the link between meteorite and source region on the Moon using the Lunar Prospector gamma ray spectrometer remote sensing data set for the elements Fe, Ti, and Th. The approach has been validated using Apollo and Luna bulk regolith samples, and we have applied it to 48 meteorites excluding paired stones. Our approach is able broadly to differentiate the best compositional matches as potential regions of origin for the various classes of lunar meteorites. Basaltic and intermediate Fe regolith breccia meteorites are found to have the best constrained potential launch sites, with some impact breccias and pristine mare basalts also having reasonably well-defined potential source regions. Launch areas for highland feldspathic meteorites are much less well constrained and the addition of another element, such as Mg, will probably be required to identify potential source regions for these.

The space sector gathers together people from a variety of fields who work in the industry on different levels and with different expertise. What is often forgotten is the impact and role of the current young generation. Their engagement is of great importance as undeniably today's young ‘space generation’ will be defining the direction of future space exploration. Today's vision of future human and robotic space exploration has been set out in the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). This focuses on sustainable, affordable and productive long-term goals. The strategy begins with the International Space Station (ISS) and then expands human presence into the solar system, including a human mission to Mars. This paper presents a general overview of the role of today's youth within the space exploration sector and the challenges to overcome. To complete this perspective, we present results from a survey made among students and young professionals about their levels of awareness of the GER. The respondents presented their opinion about current aspects of the GER and prioritised the GER's objectives. It is hoped that the paper will bring a new perspective into the GER and a contribution to the current GER strategy.

The International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) developed an integrated Global Exploration Roadmap (GER) that outlines plans for human-assisted sample return from the lunar surface in ∼2024 and for human presence on the lunar surface in ∼2028. Previous studies have identified the Schrodinger basin, situated on the far side of the Moon, as a prime target for lunar science and exploration where a significant number of the scientific concepts reviewed by the National Research Council (NRC, 2007) can be addressed. In this study, two robotic mission traverses within the Schrodinger basin are proposed based on a 3 year mission plan in support of the HERACLES human-assisted sample return mission concept. A comprehensive set of modern remote sensing data (LROC imagery, LOLA topography, M3 and Clementine spectral data) has been integrated to provide high-resolution coverage of the traverses and to facilitate identification of specific sample localities. We also present a preliminary Concept of Operations (ConOps) study based on a set of notional rover capabilities and instrumental payload. An extended robotic mission to the Schrodinger basin will allow for significant sample return opportunities from multiple distinct geologic terrains and will address multiple high-priority NRC (2007) scientific objectives. Both traverses will offer the first opportunity to (i) sample pyroclastic material from the lunar farside, (ii) sample Schrodinger impact melt and test the lunar cataclysm hypothesis, (iii) sample deep crustal lithologies in an uplifted peak ring and test the lunar magma ocean hypothesis and (iv) explore the top of an impact melt sheet, enhancing our ability to interpret Apollo samples. The shorter traverse will provide the first opportunity to sample farside mare deposits, whereas the longer traverse has significant potential to collect SPA impact melt, which can be used to constrain the basin-forming epoch. These robotic missions will revalidate existing lunar surface capabilities and pioneer new ones and, thus, provide important precursor results for subsequent human missions to the lunar surface.

Developing and testing autonomous systems to ensure that they work reliably on the moon is a difficult task, as testing on location is not an option. Instead, engineers rely on simulations, testing facilities and outdoor lunar analogues. Due to the lack of lunar analogue testing facilities in Europe, ispace Europe and the University of Luxembourg have teamed up to build two of these facilities with the goal of designing new vision-based navigation systems. These systems will enable autonomous long-range traverses for lunar rovers. These two facilities have a surface area of 64 and 77 square meters, respectively. Regarding the type of testing needed for vision-based systems, the optical fidelity of the environment has been considered as the most important factor. Thus, different types of Basalt have been used for the two facilities to create a larger number of possible landscapes, such as craters, hills, rocky areas and smooth planar surfaces. Regolith simulant was also considered but, due to the health restrictions and the cost factor, basalt was selected instead. As a result, this has allowed for larger testing areas. The illumination setup has been designed to simulate the highland regions of the Moon, with a single light source positioned low above the horizon, casting long shadows over the entire area. To mitigate problems with feature detection algorithms picking up features at the edge of the facility, the walls have been painted black. This also produces high contrast shadows, which is exactly what makes vision-based navigation challenging in the polar regions. The outcome of this research is a set of lessons learned which will enable other researchers to replicate similar facilities and to reproduce the same fidelity in indoor testing for future vision-based navigation systems.