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This work was carried out in the Naâma area to determine the appropriate techniques for natural resource conservation of the agricultural holdings surveyed in this region. The results show that combining the mechanical methods (threshold in gabion, threshold in dry stone and hillside reservoirs) and the biological ones (setting in defense, reforestation, rustic planting, etc.) can give the best result to conserve the natural resources. The investigation carried out with farmers of thirty farms allowed us to determine some peasant of water and soil conservation techniques (WSCT) implemented in this area, notably basins, seguia, mulching, and dry stonewalls. On the other hand, some thresholds were practical and very well adapted to the physical conditions of this region. Still, they are partially degraded due to the influence of intense rainfalls and violent winds, which usually require normal controls after each hydrological event. The average cost to install a complete system of natural resource conservation in this area (torrential corrections and biological plantation) could be estimated from 1200 to 4000 DZD/m3. The sensitization of people in the fight against any factor of land and environmental degradation is significant because this precious heritage that constitutes the land requests their participation in the various development programs on these steppe areas.

This study was carried out on the surface water of Oued Fodda dam in western Algeria, and aimed to evaluate the seasonal variations of chemical characteristics with the aim to define the processes controlling the mineralization of surface water in this dam. The results showed significant variations in the majority of parameters during the study period from 2009 to 2013, indicating slightly alkaline water, and a SO4-Cl-Ca-Mg water type. Principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) were used to explain the correlations between the parameters analysed, and the probable sources of surface water contamination. The calculation of saturation indices (SI) of water indicated undersaturated water with respect to halite (NaCl), and equilibrium with respect to the other minerals. While, the temporal variation of physico-chemical parameters such as EC, TDS, SO4 2-, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+ indicated a reverse adjustment between physico-chemical parameters and water volumes (WV) in this dam, which can be explained by the weathering of silicate and carbonate minerals, these were justified by the use of ionic ratios, diagrams and scatter plots and multivariate statistical techniques. Conversely, evaluation of the organic water pollution level in this dam showed a water quality from moderately to severely polluted.

The Algerian steppe is of great interest in terms of vegetation, mainly in the Naâma region. This steppe vegetation is generally composed of annual and perennial grasses and other herbaceous plants, as well as, bushes and small trees. It is characterized by an arid Mediterranean climate where the average annual precipitation (100 to 250 mm) is insufficient to ensure the maintenance of the vegetation, in which the potential evaporation always exceeds the precipitations. This aridity has strong hydrological effect and edaphic implications from which it is inseparable. Water losses are great than gains due to the evaporation and transpiration from plants (evapotranspiration). The wind moves soils for one location to another, and causes a strong evapotranspiration of the plants, which is explained by a strong chronic water deficit of climatic origin of these compared to the potential evapotranspiration, opposed to a humid climate. Evapotranspiration is certainly closely linked to climate factors (solar radiation, temperature, wind, etc.), but it also depends on the natural environment of the studied region. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) data estimated from Thornthwaite’s method for the three stations (Mécheria, Naâma and Ainsefra). The average annual value of potential evapotranspiration is of the order of 807 mm in Mécheria, of 795 mm in Naâma de and in Ainsefra of 847 mm. It is more than 3 times greater than the value of the rainfall received. This propels it globally in the aridity of the region and from which the water balance of plants is in deficit. The potential evapotranspiration of vegetation in arid areas is very important due to high temperature and sunshine. During the cold season, precipitation covers the needs of the potential evapotranspiration and allows the formation of the useful reserve from which the emergence of vegetation. From the month of April there is an exhaustion of the useful reserve which results of progressive deficit of vegetation. Faced with this phenomenon of evatranspiration, the steppe vegetation of the region then invests in “survival” by reducing the phenomena of evapotranspiration, photosynthetic leaf surfaces, in times of drought. These ecophysiological relationships can largely explain the adaptation of steppe species (low woody and herbaceous plants) to the arid Mediterranean climate. Mechanisms and diverse modalities were allowing them to effectively resist for this phenomenon. The adaptation of the steppe vegetation by the presence of a root system with vertical or horizontal growth or both and seems to depend on the environmental conditions, and by the reduction of the surface of transpiration, and by the fall or the rolling up of the leaves, and by a seasonal reduction of transpiration surface of the plant to reduce water losses during the dry season (more than 6 months) of the year. Some xerophytes produce “rain roots” below the soil surface, following light precipitation or during dew formation. Other persistent sclerophyllous species by which decreases transpiration by the hardness of the leaves often coated with a thick layer of wax or cutin.

Considered as the main stream of hydrographic network of Mactaa’s basin, in the west highlands of Algeria, both wadis, Mekerra and Saïda, are affected by pollution which is generated by anthropogenic activities. Makara and Saïda wadis cross the urban areas of Sidi-Bel-Abbes and Saïda respectively, in the west of Algeria, which constitute a real problem of human safety. In order to identify the pollution state on these wadis, samples have been collected during three periods of time (June 2011, July 2012 and April 2013) in the goal to characterize the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of surface water.Results obtained describe clearly the existence of chemical and organic pollution in both wadis at high levels of calcium, magnesium, chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, phosphate, DBO5 and dissolved oxygen. The evaluation of organic pollution index (OPI) confirmed that there is a high organic pollution, upstream, which increases with high water passage towards urban areas of both cities (OPI).The bacteriological analysis results obtained show presence of high contents of faecal bacteria contamination (total coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (TC) and faecal streptococci(FS))principally in wadi Saïda. The relationship between FC/FS justifies the predominance of human origin than of animal as source of contamination. While, the determination of microbiological quality index (MQI), for each wadi, confirms degradation of microbiological quality by the faecal pollution, mainly in Saïda urban area.

In this study, the assessment of surface water quality of Oued Fodda dam was carried out by using the physicochemical and organic data recorded during the period from 2009 to 2016, which were measured monthly near the water intake in this dam. The basic parameters (pH, EC, TDS, O2, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, NO3−, HCO3−, SO42−, BOD, COD, OM, NH4+,NO3−, NO2− et PO43−) are used to determine organic water pollution and water quality for different uses, such as irrigation and industrial purposes. The evaluation of the suitability of surface water for irrigation purpose was done by the basic criteria such as sodium hazard (% Na), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and water quality index for irrigation (WQII). All these index methods indicate good water quality in this dam, which can be used to irrigate all kind of plants without real problem on agricultural yield rate, and without a problem of sodium and salinity hazards or permeability on the irrigated soils, mainly if an adequate drainage systems will be installed. The assessment of organic water pollution index (OWPI) indicates variation of water compounds concentration from month to another, that is due to multiple anthropogenic activities, and natural processes on upstream of this dam. The water passes from low pollution in the period of water inputs to moderate pollution in the period of reduction of water volumes in the dam. The fitness of water for industrial purpose by index methods (LSI and RSI) reveals an alternation between water quality from slightly to heavy corrosion (corrosion will proceed) unhindered by scale formation, generally, in the period of water inputs, and water quality of little scale forming with little to significant corrosion, which can be observed inside pipe, generally, from on the period of water volume decease.

Groundwater quality in the alluvial aquifer of Wadi Hachem, Tipaza, was assessed for drinking and irrigation purposes. This alluvial plain covers an area of 13 km² and lies in a semiarid climate. Groundwater is the major source for domestic and agricultural water activities in this region, and it is facing natural conditions and anthropogenic activities. The groundwater quality was evaluated on the basis of its physicochemical parameters for the dry period of 2015. The results of these parameters were compared with WHO and Algerian standards recommended for drinking water. The water quality was found to be slightly alkaline, with moderate water quality for drinking based on Total Hardness (TH), Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), and all water samples were within the permissible limit for drinking and irrigation purposes. The samples also showed two water types, Ca- HCO3 for the majority of samples, that characterize natural water quality controlled generally by the recharge area and by geological influences and Ca-Cl water type for one sample that is likely influenced mainly by anthropogenic activities, which was affirmed by the higher values of EC, TDS and of some ion concentrations. The analytical data plotted on Riverside and Wilcox diagrams illustrated high and very high salinity, and low sodium hazard rendering groundwater usable only on soils with good permeability.

The objective of this work was to study the effect of increasing rates of salinity with and without fertilizer on the mineral nutrition of canola. It is about measuring the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents in canola plant and comparing the results of each treatment (interaction between salinity and NPK fertilizer). The pot experimental included four levels of salinity S0 (control), S1, S2, and S3 and two doses of NPK fertilizer. The results showed the absence of NPK fertilizer, and salinity has a negative effect, especially with respect to S3, where the lowest nitrogen content was registered. The supply of NPK fertilizers has a significant effect on the nitrogen content of canola, where it has been recorded. The increasing concentrations of NaCl with the addition of NPK fertilizers influence the phosphorus content. The S3 level registered the highest phosphorus content. With the NPK fertilizer, the content of exchangeable potassium content in canola plant decreases with increasing the NaCl concentration, due to the antagonism between Na+ and K+. The S0 (control) registered the highest potassium content where, the S3 registered the lowest content. The application of NPK fertilizer increased the nitrogen and phosphorus content in plant of canola in a saline environment.

The impact of individual septic tank effluent on groundwater quality was investigated in the rural area of the Ain Soltane municipality in Algeria. This area has an important number of individual septic tanks, and it is devoid of a drinking water supply and sewerage systems. The septic tank is a pre-treatment solution of sewage by bacteria living without oxygen (anaerobic). The alluvial aquifer in this area is covered by a layer of good permeability on the surface, which can pollute groundwater by vertical transport of pollutants through the soil, including microbial contamination. Groundwater samples were collected from 33 wells in the dry period of 2016. The monitoring of groundwater quality has shown a significant degree of organic and inorganic pollution in the majority of wells, with very high concentrations of sulphate and chloride exceeding 450 mg/l and 250 mg/l respectively. The analyzes also show the presence of bacterial germs in the groundwater of which the origin is faecal (faecal coliform densities are above 10 organisms per 100 ml, and the Total Streptococcus is more than 240 colonies per 100 ml). Monitoring confirms the contamination of these wells from septic tanks and that it was moving into groundwater, which makes it unfit for drinking due to the pathogenic germs. This poses a major problem for public health. This study has identified the effects of septic tank effluent on groundwater quality in this area.

The impact of climate changes on flood peaks was the subject of several studies. However, a flood is not characterized only by its peak but also by the time, duration of the tip, as well as the rise time and shape of the flood hydrograph according to geographical distribution, leading to an understanding of these extreme hydrological hydrographs and to detect areas vulnerable to flood hazards. The flood-duration-frequency observed rate of chronic Q(t) provides a theoretical multi-term flood quantiles description, directly meeting the needs of an integrated hydrological hydraulic modeling of the catchment. This article describes a statistical approach that aims to characterize the river in flood hydrology taking into account the notion of duration “d” and the return period “T.” We realize that samplings were carried out for flood flows of 04 gauging stations in the watershed of the middle Cheliff, which reveal a higher value than the threshold. For this analysis, F-d-F was requested to define synthetic mono-frequency hydrographs (SMFH).

This chapter summarizes the main contents of the chapters presented in the book “Water Resources in Algeria: Water Quality, Treatment, Protection and Development” according to its three themes. Consequently, the latest finding of research on water quality and modelling, wastewater treatment and reuse and protection of water resources. Also, key information on the development and future of water resources in Algeria were highlighted. The editors believe that the contained information are important to support the sustainable development in Algeria as an arid country in the MENA region.

Extreme hydrological events, such as floods and droughts, are some of the natural disasters that occur in several parts of the world. They are regarded as being the most costly natural risks in terms of the disastrous consequences in human lives and in property damages. The main objective of the present study is to estimate flood events in Cheliff watershed in giving return periods at the gauged stations, which is located in a semiarid region in the northwest of Algeria. The choice of this area is due to the significant floods observed in this watershed, which are occurring mainly from 1960 and 2006. A study is carried out to know the temporal variability and the place occupied by peak flows for both annual and monthly levels, which can finally determine the peak output of flood. We will try to understand the evolution of average and extreme flows according to rainfalls that are temporally associated with them. Frequency analysis is performed on different series of observed annual and monthly average discharges, including classical statistical tools as well as recent techniques. The obtained results show that the annual maximum approach is more appropriate in this case. This study also indicates the importance of continuous data monitoring in these stations.

This chapter highlights the basic technical elements of the chapters presented in the book according to its four themes. Therefore, the chapter contains information on the current status of water resources in Algeria including surface water and groundwater, the hydrological investigations in Algeria and the impact of climate change on water resources, characterization of groundwater aquifers, and assessment of water resources to support the sustainable development in Algeria as an arid country in the MENA region.

The water supply actions have been influenced by climate change effects. In the last 2 years, the surface runoff was reduced, and this caused a diminution of water levels in dams and water table. Under bad scenarios and difficult meteorological conditions, the authority must move rapidly to solve the problem of water shortage in the short, medium, and long range to avoid a probable water crisis in the future years. In steppe regions, the population water supply system was articulated essentially to the groundwater. In this chapter, we illustrate the actual situation of water supply program of some province of the steppe in Algeria to simulate the situation of water supply capacity in the next 10 years. Simulation of water demand is realized by two bad scenarios.

Assessment of groundwater suitability for drinking and agricultural purposes was carried out in the plain of upper Cheliff. The study area covers an area of 375 km2 and lies in a semiarid climate. Groundwater is the major source for domestic and agricultural activity in this area. Groundwater samples were collected from 19 wells during dry and wet periods in 2012, and they were analyzed for major cations and anions and compared with drinking and irrigation specification standards. The concentration of the majority of chemical constituents exceeds the standards of WHO as a result of various sources of pollution. It indicates the dominance of groundwater types: Ca-Mg-Cl, and Ca-Mg-HCO3. Suitability of groundwater for drinking was evaluated based on the water quality index; it shows more than 60% of samples have very poor quality for dry and wet periods, which means water is severely contaminated and unsuitable for drinking purpose. In terms of the irrigation usage, generally groundwater is suitable for both periods in the major part of the plain. The Mineralization processes in this area is determined by the lithology of the aquifer (exchange water-rock), by anthropogenic factors (discharges of urban sewage, use of fertilizers) and also by evaporation (semi-arid climate).

The climate change has an effect on groundwater aquifers in some parts of the world. Algeria is considered as a vulnerable country in the world regarding the availability of water resources. The water supply is the main challenge of the public institutions under these natural conditions and human activities. The goal of this work is to assess the impact of climate change on groundwater resources, especially in the coastal aquifers, case of Mitidja in northern Algeria. In this study area, rainfalls were decreased at about 20% from 1905 to 2011, with a significant irregularity in this period. The analysis of piezometric map shows a decrease of groundwater levels from 1974 to 2010 at more than 10 m in average. It shows also high salinity in the coastal sector due to seawater intrusion after the overexploitation of groundwater in the catchment fields. It shows a high value of electrical conductivity (average of 2200 µS/cm), and high concentration of chlorides (an average of 386 mg/l). The analysis of physicochemical parameters of groundwater shows also high concentrations of nitrate for the major part of the plain, they are moderately higher than the standard value (50 mg/l). It is due to the anthropogenic activities in Mitidja plain such as the agricultural origin, primarily linked to the intensification and abusive uses of fertilizers. We can also report urban pollution in this plain, which comes from the discharge sewerage networks without treatment.

The impact of individual septic tank effluent on groundwater quality was investigated in the rural area of the Ain Soltane municipality. The septic tank is a solution for the pre-treatment of sewage. It ensures the partial liquefaction of concentrated pollutants in wastewater and the retention of solids and floating waste. The alluvial gravel aquifer of the Cheliff Plain is especially susceptible to microbial contamination due to the significant number of septic tanks and the high quantity of pre-treated wastewater passing toward the groundwater which may transport bacteria and contaminants over large distances. Geological investigations established the presence of limestone carapace, and stones with high thickness and good permeability, which forms an unconfined aquifer in the area. Groundwater quality monitoring showed a significant degree of an organic pollution in the majority of wells, with very high concentrations of sulfate and chloride exceeding 450 and 250 mg/L, respectively. It also showed the presence of bacterial germs in the groundwater whose origin are fecal, so these monitoring wells are contaminated and are unfit for drinking in this area. The presence of these pathogen germs poses a major problem for public health. This study has identified the effects of septic tank effluent on groundwater quality in Ain Soltane area.

The study focuses on the characterization of the groundwater salinity on the Nador coastal aquifer (Algeria). The groundwater quality has undergone serious deterioration due to overexploitation. Groundwater samplings were carried out in high and low waters in 2013, in order to study the evolution of groundwater hydrochemistry from the recharge to the coastal area. Different kinds of statistical analysis were made in order to identify the main hydrogeochemical processes occurring in the aquifer and to discriminate between different groups of groundwater. These statistical methods provide a better understanding of the aquifer hydrochem-istry, and put in evidence a hydrochemical classification of wells, showing that the area with higher salinity is located close to the coast, in the first two kilometers, where the salinity gradually increases as one approaches the seaside and suggests the groundwater salinization by sea-water intrusion.

The Mitidja plain is situated in the North of Algeria. It extends over an area of about 1450 km2. It is bordered in the north by the Mediterranean Sea in its eastern part, and by the Sahel mountains (260 m l.a.s) in its western part.

In Algeria, groundwater is an important source of irrigation. In order to evaluate the quality of groundwater in study area, 24 groundwater samples were collected and analyzed. Physical and chemical major parameters of groundwater such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total dissolved solids, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, $$\hbox {HCO}_{3}$$ , $$\hbox {SO}_{4}$$ , and $$\hbox {NO}_{3}$$ were determined. The important constituents that influence the water quality for irrigation such as sodium percentage, sodium adsorption ratio, soluble sodium percentage, and residual sodium bi-carbonate, and permeability index, Magnesium adsorption ratio, and Kelly’s ratio were calculated. Assessment of water samples from various methods indicated that groundwater in south sector is chemically suitable for agricultural uses, but the groundwater in the coastal sector is unsuitable for irrigation. The highest values of groundwater samples (EC, Cl, and Na) were consistently recorded in the coastal area. This shows that the mineralization of the groundwater is dominated by these two ions (sodium chloride facies). We know that the main source of these ions is likely the sea. The overexploitation of this aquifer without any awareness by farmers for irrigation crops was caused salinization of the portion of the aquifer closest to the coast and made the water unsuitable for the desired uses of either drinking water supply or crop irrigation. It will badly affect crop yield and reduces land fertility.

The alluvial aquifer of Upper Cheliff (northern Algeria) is known for its intensive agricultural activities, which is based especially on groundwater exploitation. This aquifer is now facing a dual problem of quantity and quality, with a decrease in the groundwater levels and an increase in mineralization. Twenty monitoring samples were collected and analyzed for major ion during the dry season 2014. In the present study, we try to characterize the hydrogeochemical processes and to assess the impact of natural and anthropogenic conditions on groundwater mineralization. The analytical results of the dry season 2014 show a groundwater quality slightly alkaline (pH > 7) and indicate that the majority of samples have a values exceeding the limits of potability fixed by WHO in 2008, due to the various sources of anthropogenic pollution. The Piper diagram shows the dominance of groundwater types: Ca–Cl, the mixed facies (Cl–SO4–Ca–Mg), and Ca–HCO3: The mineralization process in this aquifer is mainly controlled by the lithology of the aquifer (exchange water–rock and weathering of calcareous crust dissolution in the unsaturated zone), by anthropogenic factors (discharges of untreated urban sewage, intensive use of fertilizers in agriculture and the use of domestic septic tanks by rural inhabitants) and also by geoclimatic conditions (semiarid climate). Suitability of groundwater shows more than 80% of samples have very poor quality for drinking and more than 20% of samples indicate a quality unsuitable for irrigation.

The assessment of the suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation uses was carried out in the alluvial plain of Low-Isser in the north of Algeria. The plain covers an area of 533 km2 and lies in a Mediterranean sub-humid climate. Groundwater is the main source for domestic uses and agricultural activities in this area. Groundwater samples were collected from 15 wells during dry and wet seasons in 2015, and they were analyzed for major cations and anions and compared with drinking and irrigation specification standards. The comparison of chemical concentration with WHO drinking water standards of 2006 shows that more than 30% of groundwater samples are unsuitable for drinking, and the majority of groundwater samples fell on the hard and very hard categories. Suitability of groundwater for drinking was also evaluated based on the water quality index (WQI). It shows more than 80% of samples have good or permissible water quality for dry and wet seasons. In terms of the irrigation usage, generally, groundwater in the study area is suitable for different uses in both seasons according to SAR, %Na, RSBC, and PI. However, water rock exchange processes and groundwater flow have been responsible for the dominated water type Ca–Mg–Cl.

The groundwater of Nador plain has been overexploited during the last two decades. The goal was to meet the demands of intensive agricultural activities and at the same time the supply of drinking water. As a result, the dynamic balance between freshwater and seawater has been disturbed and the quality of the groundwater has deteriorated. The degradation of the groundwater quality is characterized by salinization phenomena. In this project, the analysis of the piezometric map indicates a piezometric water level of 0 m inside the plain. The chemical analysis of major ions in the groundwater was carried out on the water samples of 24 wells: it indicates an electrical conductivity of water exceeding 1,500 µS/cm, and chloride concentrations exceeding 500 mg/L in the downstream of the plain. Presently, the groundwater in this coastal sector is used neither for drinking water nor for irrigation. In this study, 35 vertical electrical soundings (VES) were carried out in the area, with geoelectrical sections and maps of iso-resistivity created to delineate the zones that are affected by saltwater intrusion. The findings suggest that saltwater intrusion has reached a distance of approximately 1,600 m inside the aquifer.

The aquifer of Nador has suffered significant salinization due to seawater intrusion. It was strongly exploited during the 1980s and 1990s. A piezometric analysis in April 2012 showed the piezometric level to lie at 0 m a.s.l. over the plain; as a result, this aquifer is highly sensitive to the marine intrusion with an electrical conductivity of the groundwater in of exceeds 2500 μS/cm and so there are no abstractions for irrigation or drinking purpose from these sectors. The geoelectric study also showed the lateral variation in the electrical resistivity for two moments separated in time by more than 45 years. The fall in resistivity may be due to the encroachment of seawater into previously freshwater zones and/or infiltration during the era of pumped abstractions downstream. The resistivity surveys reveal two distinct sectors: the saturated aquifer in brackish and saltwater having resistivity values to 36-10 Ωm, which extends nearly 1600 m inland.

In the coastal aquifer of Nador, aquifer vulnerability index (AVI) and Groundwater occurrence, Aquifer hydraulic conductivity, Level above sea, Distance from the shore, Impact magnitude of the existing seawater intrusion in the area, Thickness of the aquifer which is being mapped (GALDIT) methods were employed to determine the groundwater vulnerability to anthropogenic pollution and seawater intrusion. The groundwater quality is also studied by using water quality index (WQI), for identify sectors with the best quality for drinking purposes. The AVI method classified the area into three vulnerability classes: low, moderate, and high vulnerability in the two parts of Nador valley due to anthropogenic activities, while the GALDIT method delineates the area into three vulnerability classes: low ( 7.5) covering 47, 36, and 17 %, respectively, of the study area surface. The high class is located in the coastal sector; it is due to the proximity to the sea, the high hydraulic conductivity of aquifer, the exchange freshwater-seawater after the overexploitation, and also the thickness of the aquifer. WQI has been calculated in the present study to assess suitability of groundwater for drinking purposes. Twenty-four groundwater samples were collected from the Nador plain during the dry period of 2013. The WQI show that 17 % of groundwater sample falls in good water category, 46 % falls in poor water category, 12 % falls in very poor water category, and 25 % falls in unsuitable water category. The groundwater unsuitable for drinking purposes is due to its high salinity, with high values of EC, Cl−, Na+, Mg2+, and SO4 2− due to the seawater intrusion.