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Myocardial infarction (MI) triggers a complex inflammatory response that is essential for cardiac repair but can also lead to adverse outcomes if left uncontrolled. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of epigenetic modifications in regulating post-MI inflammation. This study investigated the role of the autotaxin (ATX)/lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) signaling axis in modulating myocardial inflammation through epigenetic pathways in a mouse model of MI. C57BL/6 J mice underwent left anterior descending coronary artery ligation to induce MI and were treated with the ATX inhibitor, PF-8380, or vehicle. Cardiac tissue from the border zone was collected at 6 h, 1, 3, and 7 days post-MI for epigenetic gene profiling using RT2 Profiler PCR Arrays. The results revealed distinct gene expression patterns across sham, MI + Vehicle, and MI + PF-8380 groups. PF-8380 treatment significantly altered the expression of genes involved in inflammation, stress response, and epigenetic regulation compared to the vehicle group. Notably, PF-8380 downregulated Hdac5, Prmt5, and Prmt6, which are linked to exacerbated inflammatory responses, as early as 6 h post-MI. Furthermore, PF-8380 attenuated the reduction of Smyd1, a gene important in myogenic differentiation, at 7 days post-MI. This study demonstrates that the ATX/LPA signaling axis plays a pivotal role in modulating post-MI inflammation via epigenetic pathways. Targeting ATX/LPA signaling may represent a novel therapeutic strategy to control inflammation and improve outcomes after MI. Further research is needed to validate these findings in preclinical and clinical settings and to elucidate the complex interplay between epigenetic mechanisms and ATX/LPA signaling in the context of MI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of drug resistance in cancer cells poses a significant challenge for treatment, with nearly 90% of cancer-related deaths attributed to it. Over 50% of ovarian cancer patients and 30–40% of breast cancer patients exhibit resistance to therapies such as Taxol. Previous literature has shown that cytotoxic cancer therapies and ionizing radiation damage tumors, prompting cancer cells to exploit the autotaxin (ATX)–lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)–lysophosphatidic acid receptor (LPAR) signaling axis to enhance survival pathways, thus reducing treatment efficacy. Therefore, targeting this signaling axis has become a crucial strategy to overcome some forms of cancer resistance. Addressing this challenge, we identified and assessed ATX-1d, a novel compound targeting ATX, through computational methods and in vitro assays. ATX-1d exhibited an IC50 of 1.8 ± 0.3 μM for ATX inhibition and demonstrated a significant binding affinity for ATX, as confirmed by MM-GBSA, QM/MM-GBSA, and SAPT in silico methods. ATX-1d significantly amplified the potency of paclitaxel, increasing its effectiveness tenfold in 4T1 murine breast carcinoma cells and fourfold in A375 human melanoma cells without inducing cytotoxic effects as a single agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Autotaxin (ATX) is an extracellular lysophospholipase D that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lysophosphatidylcholine into lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). Recent accumulating evidence indicates the biological roles of ATX in malignant tumors. However, the expression and clinical implications of ATX in human cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) remain elusive. Methods: In this study, the expression of ATX in 97 human CCA tissues was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Serum ATX levels were determined in CCA patients (n = 26) and healthy subjects (n = 8). Autotaxin expression in cell types within the tumor microenvironment was characterized by immunofluorescence staining. Results: High ATX expression in CCA tissue was significantly associated with a higher frequency of lymph node metastasis (p = 0.050). High ATX expression was correlated with shorter overall survival (p = 0.032) and recurrence‐free survival (RFS) (p = 0.001) than low ATX expression. In multivariate Cox analysis, high ATX expression (p = 0.019) was an independent factor for shorter RFS. Compared with low ATX expression, high ATX expression was significantly associated with higher Ki‐67‐positive cell counts (p < 0.001). Serum ATX levels were significantly higher in male CCA patients than in healthy male subjects (p = 0.030). In the tumor microenvironment of CCA, ATX protein was predominantly expressed in tumor cells, cancer‐associated fibroblasts, plasma cells, and biliary epithelial cells. Conclusions: Our study highlights the clinical evidence and independent prognostic value of ATX in human CCA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endothelial dysfunction (ED) plays a prominent role in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia (PE). There is a need for non-invasive methods to assess endothelial function in preeclamptic patients. In the present study, adropin, autotaxin (ATX), and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) were evaluated as indicators of ED. Patients diagnosed with PE and healthy pregnant women (n = 42 for each group) were compared. After measuring flow-mediated dilation (FMD), the participants were stratified as ED (+) or ED (−) based on a cut-off value of 6.5%. The PE patients were divided as early/late onset PE and severe/mild PE. Adropin, ATX, and LPA levels were measured, and their relevance to ED was evaluated. Student t, Mann–Whitney U, or ANOVA tests were used for statistics, as appropriate. Adropin levels were diminished in the ED (+) group, whereas ATX and LPA levels were increased. The decrease in adropin levels was more pronounced in severe PE, showing a positive correlation with the FMD. In the logistic regression model, adropin was the only parameter that was an independent variable for the FMD test (P <.001). Adropin measurements in serum may be of value for disease follow-up in patients with PE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is the most abundant endocannabinoid (EC), acting as a full agonist at both CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors. It is synthesized on demand in postsynaptic membranes through the sequential action of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase Cβ1 (PLCβ1) and diacylglycerol lipase α (DAGLα), contributing to retrograde signaling upon interaction with presynaptic CB1. However, 2-AG production might also involve various combinations of PLC and DAGL isoforms, as well as additional intracellular pathways implying other enzymes and substrates. Three other alternative pathways of 2-AG synthesis rest on the extracellular cleavage of 2-arachidonoyl-lysophospholipids by three different hydrolases: glycerophosphodiesterase 3 (GDE3), lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs), and two members of ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterases (ENPP6–7). We propose the names of AlterAG-1, -2, and -3 for three pathways sharing an ectocellular localization, allowing them to convert extracellular lysophospholipid mediators into 2-AG, thus inducing typical signaling switches between various G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). This implies the critical importance of the regioisomerism of both lysophospholipid (LPLs) and 2-AG, which is the object of deep analysis within this review. The precise functional roles of AlterAGs are still poorly understood and will require gene invalidation approaches, knowing that both 2-AG and its related lysophospholipids are involved in numerous aspects of physiology and pathology, including cancer, inflammation, immune defenses, obesity, bone development, neurodegeneration, or psychiatric disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lysophosphatidic acids (LPAs) evoke nociception and itch in mice and humans. In this study, we assessed the signaling paths. Hydroxychloroquine was injected intradermally to evoke itch in mice, which evoked an increase of LPAs in the skin and in the thalamus, suggesting that peripheral and central LPA receptors (LPARs) were involved in HCQ-evoked pruriception. To unravel the signaling paths, we assessed the localization of candidate genes and itching behavior in knockout models addressing LPAR5, LPAR2, autotaxin/ENPP2 and the lysophospholipid phosphatases, as well as the plasticity-related genes Prg1/LPPR4 and Prg2/LPPR3. LacZ reporter studies and RNAscope revealed LPAR5 in neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and in skin keratinocytes, LPAR2 in cortical and thalamic neurons, and Prg1 in neuronal structures of the dorsal horn, thalamus and SSC. HCQ-evoked scratching behavior was reduced in sensory neuron-specific Advillin-LPAR5−/− mice (peripheral) but increased in LPAR2−/− and Prg1−/− mice (central), and it was not affected by deficiency of glial autotaxin (GFAP-ENPP2−/−) or Prg2 (PRG2−/−). Heat and mechanical nociception were not affected by any of the genotypes. The behavior suggested that HCQ-mediated itch involves the activation of peripheral LPAR5, which was supported by reduced itch upon treatment with an LPAR5 antagonist and autotaxin inhibitor. Further, HCQ-evoked calcium fluxes were reduced in primary sensory neurons of Advillin-LPAR5−/− mice. The results suggest that LPA-mediated itch is primarily mediated via peripheral LPAR5, suggesting that a topical LPAR5 blocker might suppress "non-histaminergic" itch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Non-invasive biomarkers have largely replaced liver biopsy in assessment of liver fibrosis in chronic HCV. Autotaxin (ATX) is a novel serum marker that may be related to liver fibrosis. Aim: to clarify the role of ATX as a biomarker for the estimation of hepatic fibrosis and to compare its sensitivity and specificity to the well-known fibrosis-4 score (FIB-4) and the AST-to-Platelet Ratio Index (APRI) before treatment with direct-acting antiviral drugs (DAAs) for chronic HCV as well as six months after the end of treatment. Methods: Plasma samples were obtained from 86 chronic HCV patients with different degrees of liver fibrosis. Routine laboratory, transient elastography (TE) and ultrasonographic assessments were done. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique was used to detect ATX. Results: ATX, FIB-4, and APRI had AUC of 0.57, 0.95, and 0.92, respectively for the detection of cirrhosis (F4). Baseline ATX was higher in cirrhotic group vs. noncirrhotic group (250 vs. 210) pg/ml, although the difference was not significant (p= 0.3). Significant improvement of all the laboratory parameters, APRI, FIB-4 and liver stiffness occurred at sustained virological response after 24 weeks (SVR24). Nonsignificant increase of ATX level was noted six months after the end of treatment. Conclusion: ATX should be considered cautiously as a diagnostic marker for liver fibrosis in patients with chronic HCV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advent of serial crystallography has rejuvenated and popularized room-temperature X-ray crystal structure determination. Structures determined at physiological temperature reveal protein flexibility and dynamics. In addition, challenging samples (e.g. large complexes, membrane proteins and viruses) form fragile crystals that are often difficult to harvest for cryo-crystallography. Moreover, a typical serial crystallography experiment requires a large number of microcrystals, mainly achievable through batch crystallization. Many medically relevant samples are expressed in mammalian cell lines, producing a meager quantity of protein that is incompatible with batch crystallization. This can limit the scope of serial crystallography approaches. Direct in situ data collection from a 96-well crystallization plate enables not only the identification of the best diffracting crystallization condition but also the possibility for structure determination under ambient conditions. Here, we describe an in situ serial crystallography (iSX) approach, facilitating direct measurement from crystallization plates mounted on a rapidly exchangeable universal plate holder deployed at a microfocus beamline, ID23-2, at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility. We applied our iSX approach on a challenging project, autotaxin, a therapeutic target expressed in a stable human cell line, to determine the structure in the lowest-symmetry P1 space group at 3.0 Å resolution. Our in situ data collection strategy provided a complete dataset for structure determination while screening various crystallization conditions. Our data analysis reveals that the iSX approach is highly efficient at a microfocus beamline, improving throughput and demonstrating how crystallization plates can be routinely used as an alternative method of presenting samples for serial crystallography experiments at synchrotrons.

Autotaxin (ATX) is a member of the ectonucleotide pyrophosphate/phosphodiesterase (ENPP) family; it is encoded by the ENPP2 gene. ATX is a secreted glycoprotein and catalyzes the hydrolysis of lysophosphatidylcholine to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA is responsible for the transduction of various signal pathways through the interaction with at least six G protein-coupled receptors, LPA Receptors 1 to 6 (LPAR1–6). The ATX–LPA axis is involved in various physiological and pathological processes, such as angiogenesis, embryonic development, inflammation, fibrosis, and obesity. However, significant research also reported its connection to carcinogenesis, immune escape, metastasis, tumor microenvironment, cancer stem cells, and therapeutic resistance. Moreover, several studies suggested ATX and LPA as relevant biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets. In this review of the literature, we aimed to deepen knowledge about the role of the ATX–LPA axis as a promoter of cancer development, progression and invasion, and therapeutic resistance. Finally, we explored its potential application as a prognostic/predictive biomarker and therapeutic target for tumor treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Veno-occlusive disease/sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (VOD/SOS) is a life-threatening complication after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT), and stratification of the high-risk group before transplantation is significant. Serum autotaxin (ATX) levels have been reported to increase in patients with liver fibrosis caused by metabolic inhibition from liver sinusoidal endothelial cells. Considering that the pathophysiology of VOD/SOS begins with liver sinusoidal endothelial cell injury, an increase in serum ATX levels may precede the onset of VOD/SOS. A retrospective study with 252 patients, including 12 patients with VOD/SOS, who had received allo-HCT was performed. The cumulative incidence of VOD/SOS was higher in the group with serum ATX levels before conditioning (baseline ATX) above the upper reference limit (high ATX group, p < 0.001), and 1-year cumulative incidences were 22.7% (95% confidence interval [95%CI], 3.1–42.4%) and 3.5% (95%CI, 1.1–5.8%), respectively. In the multivariate analysis, elevated baseline ATX was identified as an independent risk factor for VOD/SOS development and showed an additive effect on the predictive ability of known risk factors. Furthermore, the incidence of VOD/SOS-related mortality was greater in the high ATX group (16.7% vs. 1.3%; p = 0.005). Serum ATX is a potential predictive marker for the development of VOD/SOS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Patients with fibro-calcific aortic valve disease (FCAVD) have lipid depositions in their aortic valve that engender a proinflammatory impetus toward fibrosis and calcification and ultimately valve leaflet stenosis. Although the lipoprotein(a)-autotaxin (ATX)-lysophosphatidic acid axis has been suggested as a potential therapeutic target to prevent the development of FCAVD, supportive evidence using ATX inhibitors is lacking. We here evaluated the therapeutic potency of an ATX inhibitor to attenuate valvular calcification in the FCAVD animal models. Methods ATX level and activity in healthy participants and patients with FCAVD were analyzed using a bioinformatics approach using the Gene Expression Omnibus datasets, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunohistochemistry, and western blotting. To evaluate the efficacy of ATX inhibitor, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist-deficient (Il1rn -/-) mice and cholesterol-enriched diet-induced rabbits were used as the FCAVD models, and primary human valvular interstitial cells (VICs) from patients with calcification were employed. Results The global gene expression profiles of the aortic valve tissue of patients with severe FCAVD demonstrated that ATX gene expression was significantly upregulated and correlated with lipid retention (r = 0.96) or fibro-calcific remodeling-related genes (r = 0.77) in comparison to age-matched non-FCAVD controls. Orally available ATX inhibitor, BBT-877, markedly ameliorated the osteogenic differentiation and further mineralization of primary human VICs in vitro. Additionally, ATX inhibition significantly attenuated fibrosis-related factors’ production, with a detectable reduction of osteogenesis-related factors, in human VICs. Mechanistically, ATX inhibitor prohibited fibrotic changes in human VICs via both canonical and non-canonical TGF-β signaling, and subsequent induction of CTGF, a key factor in tissue fibrosis. In the in vivo FCAVD model system, ATX inhibitor exposure markedly reduced calcific lesion formation in interleukin-1 receptor antagonist-deficient mice (Il1rn -/-, P = 0.0210). This inhibition ameliorated the rate of change in the aortic valve area (P = 0.0287) and mean pressure gradient (P = 0.0249) in the FCAVD rabbit model. Moreover, transaortic maximal velocity (Vmax) was diminished with ATX inhibitor administration (mean Vmax = 1.082) compared to vehicle control (mean Vmax = 1.508, P = 0.0221). Importantly, ATX inhibitor administration suppressed the effects of a high-cholesterol diet and vitamin D2-driven fibrosis, in association with a reduction in macrophage infiltration and calcific deposition, in the aortic valves of this rabbit model. Conclusions ATX inhibition attenuates the development of FCAVD while protecting against fibrosis and calcification in VICs, suggesting the potential of using ATX inhibitors to treat FCAVD.

Over the past few decades, many current uses for cannabinoids have been described, ranging from controlling epilepsy to neuropathic pain and anxiety treatment. Medicines containing cannabinoids have been approved by both the FDA and the EMA for the control of specific diseases for which there are few alternatives. However, the molecular-level mechanism of action of cannabinoids is still poorly understood. Recently, cannabinoids have been shown to interact with autotaxin (ATX), a secreted lysophospholipase D enzyme responsible for catalyzing lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a pleiotropic growth factor that interacts with LPA receptors. In addition, a high-resolution structure of ATX in complex with THC has recently been published, accompanied by biochemical studies investigating this interaction. Due to their LPA-like structure, endocannabinoids have been shown to interact with ATX in a less potent manner. This finding opens new areas of research regarding cannabinoids and endocannabinoids, as it could establish the effect of these compounds at the molecular level, particularly in relation to inflammation, which cannot be explained by the interaction with CB1 and CB2 receptors alone. Further research is needed to elucidate the mechanism behind the interaction between cannabinoids and endocannabinoids in humans and to fully explore the therapeutic potential of such approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a lipid mediator that binds to G-protein-coupled receptors, eliciting a wide variety of responses in mammalian cells. Lyso-phospholipids generated via phospholipase A2 (PLA2) can be converted to LPA by a lysophospholipase D (lyso-PLD). Secreted lyso-PLDs have been studied in more detail than membrane-localized lyso-PLDs. This study utilized in vitro enzyme assays with fluorescent substrates to examine LPA generation in membranes from multiple mammalian cell lines (PC12, rat pheochromocytoma; A7r5, rat vascular smooth muscle; Rat-1, rat fibroblast; PC-3, human prostate carcinoma; and SKOV-3 and OVCAR-3, human ovarian carcinoma). The results show that membranes contain a lyso-PLD activity that generates LPA from a fluorescent alkyl-lyso-phosphatidylcholine, as well as from naturally occurring acyl-linked lysophospholipids. Membrane lyso-PLD and PLD activities were distinguished by multiple criteria, including lack of effect of PLD2 over-expression on lyso-PLD activity and differential sensitivities to vanadate (PLD inhibitor) and iodate (lyso-PLD inhibitor). Based on several lines of evidence, including siRNA knockdown, membrane lyso-PLD is distinct from autotaxin, a secreted lyso-PLD. PC-3 cells express GDE4 and GDE7, recently described lyso-PLDs that localize to membranes. These findings demonstrate that membrane-associated lyso-D activity, expressed by multiple mammalian cell lines, can contribute to LPA production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Patients with fibro-calcific aortic valve disease (FCAVD) have lipid depositions in their aortic valve that engender a proinflammatory impetus toward fibrosis and calcification and ultimately valve leaflet stenosis. Although the lipoprotein(a)-autotaxin (ATX)-lysophosphatidic acid axis has been suggested as a potential therapeutic target to prevent the development of FCAVD, supportive evidence using ATX inhibitors is lacking. We here evaluated the therapeutic potency of an ATX inhibitor to attenuate valvular calcification in the FCAVD animal models. Methods: ATX level and activity in healthy participants and patients with FCAVD were analyzed using a bioinformatics approach using the Gene Expression Omnibus datasets, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunohistochemistry, and western blotting. To evaluate the efficacy of ATX inhibitor, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist-deficient (Il1rn-/-) mice and cholesterol-enriched diet-induced rabbits were used as the FCAVD models, and primary human valvular interstitial cells (VICs) from patients with calcification were employed. Results: The global gene expression profiles of the aortic valve tissue of patients with severe FCAVD demonstrated that ATX gene expression was significantly upregulated and correlated with lipid retention (r = 0.96) or fibro-calcific remodeling-related genes (r = 0.77) in comparison to age-matched non-FCAVD controls. Orally available ATX inhibitor, BBT-877, markedly ameliorated the osteogenic differentiation and further mineralization of primary human VICs in vitro. Additionally, ATX inhibition significantly attenuated fibrosis-related factors' production, with a detectable reduction of osteogenesis-related factors, in human VICs. Mechanistically, ATX inhibitor prohibited fibrotic changes in human VICs via both canonical and non-canonical TGF-β signaling, and subsequent induction of CTGF, a key factor in tissue fibrosis. In the in vivo FCAVD model system, ATX inhibitor exposure markedly reduced calcific lesion formation in interleukin-1 receptor antagonist-deficient mice (Il1rn-/-, P = 0.0210). This inhibition ameliorated the rate of change in the aortic valve area (P = 0.0287) and mean pressure gradient (P = 0.0249) in the FCAVD rabbit model. Moreover, transaortic maximal velocity (Vmax) was diminished with ATX inhibitor administration (mean Vmax = 1.082) compared to vehicle control (mean Vmax = 1.508, P = 0.0221). Importantly, ATX inhibitor administration suppressed the effects of a high-cholesterol diet and vitamin D2-driven fibrosis, in association with a reduction in macrophage infiltration and calcific deposition, in the aortic valves of this rabbit model. Conclusions: ATX inhibition attenuates the development of FCAVD while protecting against fibrosis and calcification in VICs, suggesting the potential of using ATX inhibitors to treat FCAVD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose of Review: Cholestatic pruritus refers to the sensation of itch experienced by patients with disease processes impairing bile flow. This article aims to illustrate the burden of cholestatic pruritus, review the proposed mechanisms, and summarize its available and emerging therapies. Recent Findings: Pruritus is experienced by many patients with cholestatic liver diseases. It is underdiagnosed and negatively impacts patients' quality of life. Its direct cause remains unclear though multiple pathways have been explored. Current therapies are insufficient but newly approved ileal bile acid transporter (IBAT) inhibitors and emerging peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists are promising. Summary: Cholestatic pruritus affects many patients with cholestatic liver diseases and can be debilitating. In moderate to severe cases, current guidelines provide treatment options that are ineffective. Emerging agents such as IBAT inhibitors and PPAR agonists should be considered, including referral to clinical trials. Further exploration into the pathophysiology and effective therapeutic agents is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autotaxin (ATX) contributes to the production of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), which is associated with fibrosis development in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The ATX inhibitor ziritaxestat failed to reduce decline in forced vital capacity (FVC) in patients with IPF in ISABELA 1 and 2 (NCT03711162 and NCT03733444), two identically designed phase III studies. In the current analysis, we evaluated pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data from the pooled ISABELA studies to determine whether the lack of efficacy could be attributed to insufficient exposure and/or target engagement. Nonlinear mixed effect modeling was performed to predict ziritaxestat exposure in individual patients and describe its effect on LPA C18:2 levels. We assessed whether there was a correlation between ziritaxestat and ATX concentration and evaluated the relationship between LPA C18:2 reduction and change from baseline in FVC. Ziritaxestat exposure in patients with IPF was numerically lower in those who received ziritaxestat on top of pirfenidone than in those who received ziritaxestat on top of nintedanib or ziritaxestat alone. In most patients, LPA C18:2 reduction was comparable to that reported in healthy volunteers. ATX concentrations increased over time and correlated weakly with ziritaxestat exposure and LPA C18:2 reduction. No correlation between reduction in LPA C18:2 and change from baseline in FVC was apparent. Based on these evaluations, exposure and target engagement are not thought to have contributed to the lack of efficacy observed. We hypothesize that the lack of efficacy of ziritaxestat in the ISABELA program, despite adequate LPA reduction, could be due to the involvement of an alternative pro‐fibrotic pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The involvement of lipids in the mechanism of depression has triggered extensive discussions. Earlier studies have identified diminished levels of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and autotaxin (ATX) in individuals experiencing depression. However, the exact significance of this phenomenon in relation to depression remains inconclusive. This study seeks to explore the deeper implications of these observations. We assessed alterations in ATX and LPA in both the control group and the chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) model group. Additionally, the impact of ATX adeno-associated virus (AAV-ATX) injection into the hippocampus was validated through behavioral tests in CUMS-exposed mice. Furthermore, we probed the effects of LPA on synapse-associated proteins both in HT22 cells and within the mouse hippocampus. The mechanisms underpinning the LPA-triggered shifts in protein expression were further scrutinized. Hippocampal tissues were augmented with ATX to assess its potential to alleviate depression-like behavior by modulating synaptic-related proteins. Our findings suggest that the decrement in ATX and LPA levels alters the expression of proteins associated with synaptic plasticity in vitro and in vivo, such as synapsin-I (SYN), synaptophysin (SYP), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Moreover, we discerned a role for the ERK/CREB signaling pathway in mediating the effects of ATX and LPA. Importantly, strategic supplementation of ATX effectively mitigated depression-like behaviors. This study indicates that the ATX-LPA pathway may influence depression-like behaviors by modulating synaptic plasticity in the brains of CUMS-exposed mice. These insights augment our understanding of depression's potential pathogenic mechanism in the context of lipid metabolism and propose promising therapeutic strategies for ameliorating the disease.

The development of drug resistance in cancer cells poses a significant challenge for treatment, with nearly 90% of cancer-related deaths attributed to it. Over 50% of ovarian cancer patients and 30–40% of breast cancer patients exhibit resistance to therapies such as Taxol. Previous literature has shown that cytotoxic cancer therapies and ionizing radiation damage tumors, prompting cancer cells to exploit the autotaxin (ATX)–lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)–lysophosphatidic acid receptor (LPAR) signaling axis to enhance survival pathways, thus reducing treatment efficacy. Therefore, targeting this signaling axis has become a crucial strategy to overcome some forms of cancer resistance. Addressing this challenge, we identified and assessed ATX-1d, a novel compound targeting ATX, through computational methods and in vitro assays. ATX-1d exhibited an IC50 of 1.8 ± 0.3 μM for ATX inhibition and demonstrated a significant binding affinity for ATX, as confirmed by MM-GBSA, QM/MM-GBSA, and SAPT in silico methods. ATX-1d significantly amplified the potency of paclitaxel, increasing its effectiveness tenfold in 4T1 murine breast carcinoma cells and fourfold in A375 human melanoma cells without inducing cytotoxic effects as a single agent.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is marked by unremitting matrix deposition and architectural distortion. Multiple profibrotic pathways contribute to the persistent activation of mesenchymal cells (MCs) in fibrosis, highlighting the need to identify and target common signaling pathways. The transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFAT1) lies downstream of second messenger calcium signaling and has been recently shown to regulate key profibrotic mediator autotaxin (ATX) in lung MCs. Herein, we investigate the role of NFAT1 in regulating fibroproliferative responses during the development of lung fibrosis. Nfat1−/−-deficient mice subjected to bleomycin injury demonstrated improved survival and protection from lung fibrosis and collagen deposition as compared with bleomycin-injured wild-type (WT) mice. Chimera mice, generated by reconstituting bone marrow cells from WT or Nfat1−/− mice into irradiated WT mice (WT→WT and Nfat1−/−→WT), demonstrated no difference in bleomycin-induced fibrosis, suggesting immune influx-independent fibro protection in Nfat1−/− mice. Examination of lung tissue and flow sorted lineageneg/platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα)pos MCs demonstrated decreased MC numbers, proliferation [↓ cyclin D1 and 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation], myofibroblast differentiation [↓ α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA)], and survival (↓ Birc5) in Nfat1−/− mice. Nfat1 deficiency abrogated ATX expression in response to bleomycin in vivo and MCs derived from Nfat1−/− mice demonstrated decreased ATX expression and migration in vitro. Human IPF MCs demonstrated constitutive NFAT1 activation, and regulation of ATX in these cells by NFAT1 was confirmed using pharmacological and genetic inhibition. Our findings identify NFAT1 as a critical mediator of profibrotic processes, contributing to dysregulated lung remodeling and suggest its targeting in MCs as a potential therapeutic strategy in IPF. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal disease with hallmarks of fibroblastic foci and exuberant matrix deposition, unknown etiology, and ineffective therapies. Several profibrotic/proinflammatory pathways are implicated in accelerating tissue remodeling toward a honeycombed end-stage disease. NFAT1 is a transcriptional factor activated in IPF tissues. Nfat1-deficient mice subjected to chronic injury are protected against fibrosis independent of immune influxes, with suppression of profibrotic mesenchymal phenotypes including proliferation, differentiation, resistance to apoptosis, and autotaxin-related migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune‐mediated inflammatory disease of the CNS. A defining characteristic of MS is the ability of autoreactive T lymphocytes to cross the blood–brain barrier and mediate inflammation within the CNS. Previous work from our lab found the gene Enpp2 to be highly upregulated in murine encephalitogenic T cells. Enpp2 encodes for the protein autotaxin, a secreted glycoprotein that catalyzes the production of lysophosphatidic acid and promotes transendothelial migration of T cells from the bloodstream into the lymphatic system. The present study sought to characterize autotaxin expression in T cells during CNS autoimmune disease and determine its potential therapeutic value. Myelin‐activated CD4 T cells upregulated expression of autotaxin in vitro, and ex vivo analysis of CNS‐infiltrating CD4 T cells showed significantly higher autotaxin expression compared with cells from healthy mice. In addition, inhibiting autotaxin in myelin‐specific T cells reduced their encephalitogenicity in adoptive transfer studies and decreased in vitro cell motility. Importantly, using two mouse models of MS, treatment with an autotaxin inhibitor ameliorated EAE severity, decreased the number of CNS infiltrating T and B cells, and suppressed relapses, suggesting autotaxin may be a promising therapeutic target in the treatment of MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pain associated with bone cancer remains poorly managed, and chemotherapeutic drugs used to treat cancer usually increase pain. The discovery of dual-acting drugs that reduce cancer and produce analgesia is an optimal approach. The mechanisms underlying bone cancer pain involve interactions between cancer cells and nociceptive neurons. We demonstrated that fibrosarcoma cells express high levels of autotaxin (ATX), the enzyme synthetizing lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). Lysophosphatidic acid increased proliferation of fibrosarcoma cells in vitro. Lysophosphatidic acid is also a pain-signaling molecule, which activates LPA receptors (LPARs) located on nociceptive neurons and satellite cells in dorsal root ganglia. We therefore investigated the contribution of the ATX–LPA–LPAR signaling to pain in a mouse model of bone cancer pain in which fibrosarcoma cells are implanted into and around the calcaneus bone, resulting in tumor growth and hypersensitivity. LPA was elevated in serum of tumorbearing mice, and blockade of ATX or LPAR reduced tumor-evoked hypersensitivity. Because cancer cell–secreted exosomes contribute to hypersensitivity and ATX is bound to exosomes, we determined the role of exosome-associated ATX–LPA–LPAR signaling in hypersensitivity produced by cancer exosomes. Intraplantar injection of cancer exosomes into naive mice produced hypersensitivity by sensitizing C-fiber nociceptors. Inhibition of ATX or blockade of LPAR attenuated cancer exosome-evoked hypersensitivity in an ATX–LPA–LPAR-dependent manner. Parallel in vitro studies revealed the involvement of ATX–LPA–LPAR signaling in direct sensitization of dorsal root ganglion neurons by cancer exosomes. Thus, our study identified a cancer exosomemediated pathway, which may represent a therapeutic target for treating tumor growth and pain in patients with bone cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (panNENs) are rare pancreatic neoplasms, and descriptions of treatment remain limited. Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted autocrine motility factor involved in the production of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a lipid mediator that promotes the progression of various cancers. The aim of this study was to clarify the importance of the ATX‐LPA axis in panNENs and to confirm its contribution to panNEN progression using clinical data, cell lines, and a mouse model. Serum ATX level was higher in patients with panNEN than in patients with other pancreatic diseases (chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma [PDAC], intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm, autoimmune pancreatitis) and healthy controls, and 61% of clinical specimens stained strongly for ATX. In a case we encountered, serum ATX level fluctuated with disease progression. An in vitro study showed higher ATX mRNA expression in panNEN cell lines than in PDAC cell lines. Cell proliferation and migration in panNEN cell lines were stimulated via the ATX‐LPA axis and suppressed by RNA interference or inhibitors. An in vivo study showed that intraperitoneal injection of GLPG1690, an ATX inhibitor, suppressed tumor progression in a xenograft model. These findings revealed that ATX expression is significantly elevated in panNEN and is related to the progression of panNEN. We showed the potential of ATX as a novel biomarker and therapeutic target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effect of anti-autotaxin (ATX) aptamers on the development of proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) in both in vivo and in vitro PVR swine models. For the in vitro study, primary retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells were obtained from porcine eyes and cultured for cell proliferation and migration assays. For the in vivo study, a swine PVR model was established by inducing retinal detachment and injecting cultured RPE cells (2.0 × 106). Concurrently, 1 week after RPE cell injection, the anti-ATX aptamer, RBM-006 (10 mg/mL, 0.1 mL), was injected twice into the vitreous cavity. Post-injection effects of the anti-ATX aptamer on PVR development in the in vivo swine PVR model were investigated. For the in vitro evaluation, the cultured RPE cell proliferation and migration were significantly reduced at anti-ATX aptamer concentrations of 0.5–0.05 mg and at only 0.5 mg, respectively. Intravitreal administration of the anti-ATX aptamer also prevented tractional retinal detachment caused by PVR in the in vivo PVR model. We observed that the anti-ATX aptamer, RBM-006, inhibited PVR-related RPE cell proliferation and migration in vitro and inhibited the progression of PVR in the in vivo model, suggesting that the anti-ATX aptamer may be effective in preventing PVR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ziritaxestat, an autotaxin inhibitor, was under development for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. It is a substrate of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and P‐glycoprotein and a weak inhibitor of the CYP3A4 and OATP1B1 pathways. We developed a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) network interaction model for ziritaxestat that incorporated its metabolic and transporter pathways, enabling prediction of its potential as a victim or perpetrator of drug–drug interactions (DDIs). Concurrently, we evaluated CYP3A4 autoinhibition, including time‐dependent inhibition. In vitro information and clinical data from healthy volunteer studies were used for model building and validation. DDIs with rifampin, itraconazole, voriconazole, pravastatin, and rosuvastatin were predicted, followed by validation against a test dataset. DDIs of ziritaxestat as a victim or perpetrator were simulated using the final model. Predicted‐to‐observed DDI ratios for the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and the area under the plasma concentration–time curve (AUC) were within a two‐fold ratio for both the metabolic and transporter‐mediated simulated DDIs. The predicted impact of autoinhibition/autoinduction or time‐dependent inhibition of CYP3A4 was a 12% decrease in exposure. Model‐based predictions for ziritaxestat as a victim of DDIs with a moderate CYP3A4 inhibitor (fluconazole) suggested a 2.6‐fold increase in the AUC of ziritaxestat, while multiple doses of a strong inhibitor (voriconazole) would increase the AUC by 15‐fold. Efavirenz would yield a three‐fold decrease in the AUC of ziritaxestat. As a perpetrator, ziritaxestat was predicted to increase the AUC of the CYP3A4 index substrate midazolam by 2.7‐fold. An overarching PBPK model was developed that could predict DDI liability of ziritaxestat for both CYP3A4 and the transporter pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted enzyme that converts lysophosphatidylcholine to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA stimulates cell proliferation and migration and promotes wound repair following tissue damage. ATX levels are directly correlated with stage and grade in several human cancers. Several small molecule ATX inhibitors have been developed in recent years. IOA-289 is a potent ATX inhibitor, developed to treat cancers containing fibrosis. In this study, we tested IOA-289 treatment on different gastrointestinal tract tumor cell lines, in order to evaluate its effects on viability and motility. Methods To determine the effects on cell viability and proliferation of treatment with increasing concentrations of IOA-289, we used the crystal violet assay, a clonogenic assay in matrigel, and we evaluated the inhibitor’s effect on formation of 3D spheroids in an in vitro model. The effect of IOA-289 on cell cycle phases was analysed with a redox dye reagent. Cell migration capacity was evaluated by wound healing assay and transwell migration assay. To evaluate the pro-apoptotic effect of the inhibitor, cells were stained with Annexin V and immunofluorescence and flow cytometry analysis were performed. An antibody array was also used, to discriminate, in various samples, the differential expression of 43 proteins involved in the apoptosis pathway. Results We found that IOA-289 is able to inhibit both growth and migration of gastrointestinal tract tumor cell lines, both in 2D (crystal violet assay) and 3D in vitro models (spheroid formation and clonogenic assay in matrigel). This effect is dose-dependent, and the drug is most effective when administered in FBS-free culture medium. The inhibitory effect on cell growth is due to a pro-apoptotic effect of IOA-289. Staining with FITC-conjugated Annexin V showed that IOA-289 induced a dose-dependent increase in fluorescence following incubation for 24 h, and apoptotic cells were also distinguished in flow cytometry using Annexin/PI staining. The antibody array shows that treatment with IOA-289 causes the increased expression of several pro-apoptotic proteins in all tested cell lines. Conclusions These results indicate that IOA-289 may be an effective drug for the treatment of tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, particularly those characterized by a high degree of fibrosis.

Lysophosphatidic acids (LPAs) evoke nociception and itch in mice and humans. In this study, we assessed the signaling paths. Hydroxychloroquine was injected intradermally to evoke itch in mice, which evoked an increase of LPAs in the skin and in the thalamus, suggesting that peripheral and central LPA receptors (LPARs) were involved in HCQ-evoked pruriception. To unravel the signaling paths, we assessed the localization of candidate genes and itching behavior in knockout models addressing LPAR5, LPAR2, autotaxin/ENPP2 and the lysophospholipid phosphatases, as well as the plasticity-related genes Prg1/LPPR4 and Prg2/LPPR3. LacZ reporter studies and RNAscope revealed LPAR5 in neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and in skin keratinocytes, LPAR2 in cortical and thalamic neurons, and Prg1 in neuronal structures of the dorsal horn, thalamus and SSC. HCQ-evoked scratching behavior was reduced in sensory neuron-specific Advillin-LPAR5−/− mice (peripheral) but increased in LPAR2−/− and Prg1−/− mice (central), and it was not affected by deficiency of glial autotaxin (GFAP-ENPP2−/−) or Prg2 (PRG2−/−). Heat and mechanical nociception were not affected by any of the genotypes. The behavior suggested that HCQ-mediated itch involves the activation of peripheral LPAR5, which was supported by reduced itch upon treatment with an LPAR5 antagonist and autotaxin inhibitor. Further, HCQ-evoked calcium fluxes were reduced in primary sensory neurons of Advillin-LPAR5−/− mice. The results suggest that LPA-mediated itch is primarily mediated via peripheral LPAR5, suggesting that a topical LPAR5 blocker might suppress “non-histaminergic” itch.

Background: In some patients especially those AMA negative, the diagnosis may be a challenge requiring liver biopsy. This study determined whether autotaxin, a secreted lysophospholipase D encoded by the exonucleotide pyrophosphatase phosphodiesterase 2 gene, can be used as a serum biomarker for primary biliary cholangitis. Methods: Plasma samples were collected from 103 patients with PBC and 74 healthy controls. autotaxin levels were determined by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and its predictive value for diagnosing primary biliary cholangitis was analysed. The relationship between autotaxin and the clinical data was also evaluated. Results: Autotaxin levels in patients with primary biliary cholangitis were significantly higher than those in healthy control (median: 60.7 ng/ml vs. 32.6 ng/ml, P

Non–small cell lung cancers that harbor concurrent KRAS and TP53 (KP) mutations are immunologically warm tumors with partial responsiveness to anti–PD-(L)1 blockade; however, most patients observe little or no durable clinical benefit. To identify novel tumor-driven resistance mechanisms, we developed a panel of KP murine lung cancer models with intrinsic resistance to anti–PD-1 and queried differential gene expression between these tumors and anti–PD-1–sensitive tumors. We found that the enzyme autotaxin (ATX), and the metabolite it produces, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), were significantly upregulated in resistant tumors and that ATX directly modulated antitumor immunity, with its expression negatively correlating with total and effector tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells. Pharmacological inhibition of ATX, or the downstream receptor LPAR5, in combination with anti–PD-1 was sufficient to restore the antitumor immune response and efficaciously control lung tumor growth in multiple KP tumor models. Additionally, ATX was significantly correlated with inflammatory gene signatures, including a CD8+ cytolytic score in multiple lung adenocarcinoma patient data sets, suggesting that an activated tumor-immune microenvironment upregulates ATX and thus provides an opportunity for cotargeting to prevent acquired resistance to anti–PD-1 treatment. These data reveal the ATX/LPA axis as an immunosuppressive pathway that diminishes the immune checkpoint blockade response in lung cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autotaxin, also known as ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 2, is a secreted glycoprotein that plays multiple roles in human physiology and cancer pathology. This protein, by converting lysophosphatidylcholine into lysophosphatidic acid, initiates a complex signalling cascade with significant biological implications. The article outlines the autotaxin gene and protein structure, expression regulation and physiological functions, but focuses mainly on the role of autotaxin in cancer development and progression. Autotaxin and lysophosphatidic acid signalling influence several aspects of cancer, including cell proliferation, migration, metastasis, therapy resistance, and interactions with the immune system. The potential of autotaxin as a diagnostic biomarker and promising drug target is also examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted enzyme that converts lysophosphatidylcholine to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA stimulates cell proliferation and migration and promotes wound repair following tissue damage. ATX levels are directly correlated with stage and grade in several human cancers. Several small molecule ATX inhibitors have been developed in recent years. IOA-289 is a potent ATX inhibitor, developed to treat cancers containing fibrosis. In this study, we tested IOA-289 treatment on different gastrointestinal tract tumor cell lines, in order to evaluate its effects on viability and motility. Methods: To determine the effects on cell viability and proliferation of treatment with increasing concentrations of IOA-289, we used the crystal violet assay, a clonogenic assay in matrigel, and we evaluated the inhibitor's effect on formation of 3D spheroids in an in vitro model. The effect of IOA-289 on cell cycle phases was analysed with a redox dye reagent. Cell migration capacity was evaluated by wound healing assay and transwell migration assay. To evaluate the pro-apoptotic effect of the inhibitor, cells were stained with Annexin V and immunofluorescence and flow cytometry analysis were performed. An antibody array was also used, to discriminate, in various samples, the differential expression of 43 proteins involved in the apoptosis pathway. Results: We found that IOA-289 is able to inhibit both growth and migration of gastrointestinal tract tumor cell lines, both in 2D (crystal violet assay) and 3D in vitro models (spheroid formation and clonogenic assay in matrigel). This effect is dose-dependent, and the drug is most effective when administered in FBS-free culture medium. The inhibitory effect on cell growth is due to a pro-apoptotic effect of IOA-289. Staining with FITC-conjugated Annexin V showed that IOA-289 induced a dose-dependent increase in fluorescence following incubation for 24 h, and apoptotic cells were also distinguished in flow cytometry using Annexin/PI staining. The antibody array shows that treatment with IOA-289 causes the increased expression of several pro-apoptotic proteins in all tested cell lines. Conclusions: These results indicate that IOA-289 may be an effective drug for the treatment of tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, particularly those characterized by a high degree of fibrosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Chemotherapy for colorectal liver metastasis (CRLM) has improved dramatically over the past few decades. However, sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (SOS) induced by oxaliplatin leads to increased severe morbidity after hepatectomy for CRLM. Autotaxin is a novel liver fibrosis marker known to be taken up and metabolized by sinusoidal endothelial cells. This study aimed to evaluate whether autotaxin levels could be a novel surrogate marker of SOS for CRLM. Methods: We retrospectively evaluated 73 consecutive patients who underwent hepatectomy for CRLM, and assessed the relationship between their preoperative autotaxin levels and SOS. Results: Median autotaxin level was 0.750 mg/L. Preoperative oxaliplatin‐based chemotherapy for CRLM was administered to 51 patients, and SOS was histologically observed in 45 patients. Patients who received the oxaliplatin‐based chemotherapy had significantly higher autotaxin levels than those who did not (p = 0.038). Furthermore, autotaxin levels were higher in patients with SOS than in those without (p = 0.011). Univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that autotaxin level can be an independent predictive factor for SOS preoperatively (p = 0.001). Conclusions: Autotaxin level is a noninvasive and promising surrogate marker for predicting SOS before surgical resection for CRLM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autotaxin (ATX or ENPP2) is an autocrine enzyme associated with the metabolism of various phospholipids. ATX has recently been identified as a regulatory factor in immune-related and inflammation-associated diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, but the exact mechanism is unclear. Here, we treated mice with recombinant ATX protein or an ATX inhibitor to investigate the effect of ATX on colitis in mice and the underlying mechanism. In a mouse model of colitis, ATX expression was increased, autophagy was impaired, and the mucus barrier was disrupted. Recombinant ATX protein promoted intestinal inflammation, inhibited autophagy, and disrupted the mucus barrier, while an ATX inhibitor had the opposite effect. Next, we treated mice that received ATX with an autophagy activator and an adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) agonist. We observed that autophagy activator and AMPK agonist could repair the mucus barrier and alleviate intestinal inflammation in ATX-treated mice. In vitro, we obtained consistent results. Thus, we concluded that ATX could inhibit autophagy through the AMPK pathway, which consequently disordered the mucus barrier and aggravated intestinal inflammation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Diabetes mellitus [DM] is a metabolic condition characterized by hyperglycemia caused by deficiencies in insulin action or secretion or both. Diabetes' persistent hyperglycemia is linked to long-term organ failure, including kidney loss of functions, leading to diabetic nephropathy [DN].Aim of the work: This study aims to assess the value of serum autotaxin [ATX], oxidized LDL [ox LDL], and β2-microglobulin [β2M] as biomarkers for DN patients.Patients and Methods: This cross-sectional study included 100 subjects divided into three groups. Group 1; control group [20 healthy subjects]. Patients were subdivided into two groups, group 2 [40 patients diagnosed with DN stages Ⅰ, Ⅱ, and Ⅲ], and group 3 which involved 40 patients diagnosed with DN stages Ⅳ and Ⅴ.Results: As regards the ATX, it was significantly higher in group 3 than in group 1 and group 2 with a statistically significant difference between every 2 groups [P value > 0.05 for all]. In terms of Ox LDL and β2M, the difference between the three groups was significant statistically [P value = 0.005, and 0.002 respectively], however the difference between group 2 and group 3 was not significant [P value = 0.44, and 0.98 respectively].Conclusion: Serum autotaxin, ox LDL, and β2M can be used as diagnostic noninvasive biomarkers in DN.

Over the past few decades, many current uses for cannabinoids have been described, ranging from controlling epilepsy to neuropathic pain and anxiety treatment. Medicines containing cannabinoids have been approved by both the FDA and the EMA for the control of specific diseases for which there are few alternatives. However, the molecular-level mechanism of action of cannabinoids is still poorly understood. Recently, cannabinoids have been shown to interact with autotaxin (ATX), a secreted lysophospholipase D enzyme responsible for catalyzing lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a pleiotropic growth factor that interacts with LPA receptors. In addition, a high-resolution structure of ATX in complex with THC has recently been published, accompanied by biochemical studies investigating this interaction. Due to their LPA-like structure, endocannabinoids have been shown to interact with ATX in a less potent manner. This finding opens new areas of research regarding cannabinoids and endocannabinoids, as it could establish the effect of these compounds at the molecular level, particularly in relation to inflammation, which cannot be explained by the interaction with CB1 and CB2 receptors alone. Further research is needed to elucidate the mechanism behind the interaction between cannabinoids and endocannabinoids in humans and to fully explore the therapeutic potential of such approaches.

Bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) affects 0.5–2% of the general population and constitutes the major cause of severe aortic valve stenosis (AVS) in individuals ≤70 years. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the parameters that may provide information about the risk of AVS developing in BAV patients, with particular emphasis on lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)), which is a well-recognized risk factor for stenosis in the general population. We also analyzed the impact of autotaxin (ATX) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) as parameters potentially related to the pathomechanism of Lp(a) action. We found that high Lp(a) levels (>50 mg/dL) occurred significantly more frequently in patients with AVS than in patients without AVS, both in the group below and above 45 years of age (p = 0.036 and p = 0.033, respectively). Elevated Lp(a) levels were also strictly associated with the need for aortic valve replacement (AVR) at a younger age (p = 0.016). However, the Lp(a) concentration did not differ significantly between patients with and without AVS. Similarly, we observed no differences in ATX between the analyzed patient groups, and both ATX activity and concentration correlated significantly with Lp(a) level (R = 0.465, p < 0.001 and R = 0.599, p < 0.001, respectively). We revealed a significantly higher concentration of IL-6 in young patients with AVS. However, this observation was not confirmed in the group of patients over 45 years of age. We also did not observe a significant correlation between IL-6 and Lp(a) or between CRP and Lp(a) in any of the analyzed groups of BAV patients. Our results demonstrate that a high level of Lp(a), greater than 50 mg/dL, may be a significant predictive factor for earlier AVR. Lp(a)-related parameters, such as ATX and IL-6, may be valuable in providing information about the additional cardiovascular risks associated with developing AVS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oral health is crucial to overall health, and periodontal disease (PDD) is a chronic inflammatory disease. Over the past decade, PDD has been recognized as a significant contributor to systemic inflammation. Here, we relate our seminal work defining the role of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and its receptors (LPARs) in the oral system with findings and parallels relevant to cancer. We discuss the largely unexplored fine-tuning potential of LPA species for biological control of complex immune responses and suggest approaches for the areas where we believe more research should be undertaken to advance our understanding of signaling at the level of the cellular microenvironment in biological processes where LPA is a key player so we can better treat diseases such as PDD, cancer, and emerging diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lysophosphatidic acid receptors (LPARs) are six G-protein-coupled receptors that mediate LPA signaling to promote tumorigenesis and therapy resistance in many cancer subtypes, including breast cancer. Individual-receptor-targeted monotherapies are under investigation, but receptor agonism or antagonism effects within the tumor microenvironment following treatment are minimally understood. In this study, we used three large, independent breast cancer patient cohorts (TCGA, METABRIC, and GSE96058) and single-cell RNA-sequencing data to show that increased tumor LPAR1, LPAR4, and LPAR6 expression correlated with a less aggressive phenotype, while high LPAR2 expression was particularly associated with increased tumor grade and mutational burden and decreased survival. Through gene set enrichment analysis, it was determined that cell cycling pathways were enriched in tumors with low LPAR1, LPAR4, and LPAR6 expression and high LPAR2 expression. LPAR levels were lower in tumors over normal breast tissue for LPAR1, LPAR3, LPAR4, and LPAR6, while the opposite was observed for LPAR2 and LPAR5. LPAR1 and LPAR4 were highest in cancer-associated fibroblasts, while LPAR6 was highest in endothelial cells, and LPAR2 was highest in cancer epithelial cells. Tumors high in LPAR5 and LPAR6 had the highest cytolytic activity scores, indicating decreased immune system evasion. Overall, our findings suggest that potential compensatory signaling via competing receptors must be considered in LPAR inhibitor therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the usefulness of serum autotaxin, a novel liver fibrosis marker, for predicting post hepatectomy liver failure (PHLF) in patients undergoing hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Methods: Autotaxin was measured in sera from 269 patients undergoing hepatectomy for HCC. Correlations between autotaxin level, liver fibrosis stage (METAVIR F0–F4), and PHLF, as assessed by the International Study Group of Liver Surgery criteria, were analyzed. Results: Median autotaxin concentrations correlated significantly with fibrosis stage (F0, 0.93; F1, 0.96; F2, 1.18; F3, 1.40; and F4, 1.47 mg/l; P <.0001). Autotaxin levels were significantly higher in female patients and hepatitis C virus antibody‐positive patients compared with male or antibody‐negative patients (P <.0001). PHLF grade ≥ B occurred in 25 patients (9.3%). A PHLF prediction model was constructed from four variables (autotaxin, resection rate, sex, and hepatitis C virus antibody positivity) and gave an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.8 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.69–0.87), which was superior to models based on ALPlat and resection rate (0.75, 95% CI: 0.64–0.83) or indocyanine green retention test and resection rate (0.72, 95% CI: 0.61–0.81). Conclusion: Serum autotaxin has utility for predicting liver fibrosis and PHLF in patients with HCC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key Points: Question: Does the autotaxin inhibitor ziritaxestat improve outcomes, compared with placebo, in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis who continue to receive standard of care with pirfenidone, nintedanib, or neither standard of care treatment? Findings: In 2 randomized clinical trials, ISABELA 1 and ISABELA 2, there was no reduction in the 52-week rate of decline for forced vital capacity (a measure of lung function) in the 2 ziritaxestat groups vs placebo, and combined data from both trials showed all-cause mortality rates were numerically higher for ziritaxestat than placebo. Therefore, the trials were stopped early. Meaning: The autotaxin inhibitor ziritaxestat was ineffective as a treatment for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Importance: There is a major need for effective, well-tolerated treatments for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Objective: To assess the efficacy and safety of the autotaxin inhibitor ziritaxestat in patients with IPF. Design, Setting, and Participants: The 2 identically designed, phase 3, randomized clinical trials, ISABELA 1 and ISABELA 2, were conducted in Africa, Asia-Pacific region, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, and North America (26 countries). A total of 1306 patients with IPF were randomized (525 patients at 106 sites in ISABELA 1 and 781 patients at 121 sites in ISABELA 2). Enrollment began in November 2018 in both trials and follow-up was completed early due to study termination on April 12, 2021, for ISABELA 1 and on March 30, 2021, for ISABELA 2. Interventions: Patients were randomized 1:1:1 to receive 600 mg of oral ziritaxestat, 200 mg of ziritaxestat, or placebo once daily in addition to local standard of care (pirfenidone, nintedanib, or neither) for at least 52 weeks. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was the annual rate of decline for forced vital capacity (FVC) at week 52. The key secondary outcomes were disease progression, time to first respiratory-related hospitalization, and change from baseline in St George's Respiratory Questionnaire total score (range, 0 to 100; higher scores indicate poorer health-related quality of life). Results: At the time of study termination, 525 patients were randomized in ISABELA 1 and 781 patients in ISABELA 2 (mean age: 70.0 [SD, 7.2] years in ISABELA 1 and 69.8 [SD, 7.1] years in ISABELA 2; male: 82.4% and 81.2%, respectively). The trials were terminated early after an independent data and safety monitoring committee concluded that the benefit to risk profile of ziritaxestat no longer supported their continuation. Ziritaxestat did not improve the annual rate of FVC decline vs placebo in either study. In ISABELA 1, the least-squares mean annual rate of FVC decline was –124.6 mL (95% CI, −178.0 to −71.2 mL) with 600 mg of ziritaxestat vs –147.3 mL (95% CI, −199.8 to −94.7 mL) with placebo (between-group difference, 22.7 mL [95% CI, −52.3 to 97.6 mL]), and –173.9 mL (95% CI, −225.7 to −122.2 mL) with 200 mg of ziritaxestat (between-group difference vs placebo, −26.7 mL [95% CI, −100.5 to 47.1 mL]). In ISABELA 2, the least-squares mean annual rate of FVC decline was –173.8 mL (95% CI, −209.2 to −138.4 mL) with 600 mg of ziritaxestat vs –176.6 mL (95% CI, −211.4 to −141.8 mL) with placebo (between-group difference, 2.8 mL [95% CI, −46.9 to 52.4 mL]) and –174.9 mL (95% CI, −209.5 to −140.2 mL) with 200 mg of ziritaxestat (between-group difference vs placebo, 1.7 mL [95% CI, −47.4 to 50.8 mL]). There was no benefit with ziritaxestat vs placebo for the key secondary outcomes. In ISABELA 1, all-cause mortality was 8.0% with 600 mg of ziritaxestat, 4.6% with 200 mg of ziritaxestat, and 6.3% with placebo; in ISABELA 2, it was 9.3% with 600 mg of ziritaxestat, 8.5% with 200 mg of ziritaxestat, and 4.7% with placebo. Conclusions and Relevance: Ziritaxestat did not improve clinical outcomes compared with placebo in patients with IPF receiving standard of care treatment with pirfenidone or nintedanib or in those not receiving standard of care treatment. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifiers: NCT03711162 and NCT03733444 These 2 randomized clinical trials compare the efficacy and safety of 2 doses of the autotaxin inhibitor ziritaxestat vs placebo in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction In order to identify therapeutic targets in Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), it is important to identify molecules involved in the biological responses that are modulated in COVID-19. Lysophosphatidic acids (LPAs) are involved in the pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis are one of the candidate molecules. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between the serum levels of autotaxin (ATX), which are enzymes involved in the synthesis of lysophosphatidic acids.Material and methods We enrolled 134 subjects with COVID-19 and 58 normal healthy subjects for the study. We measured serum ATX levels longitudinally in COVID-19 patients and investigated the time course and the association with severity and clinical parameters.Results The serum ATX levels were reduced in all patients with COVID-19, irrespective of the disease severity, and were negatively associated with the serum CRP, D-dimer, and anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) antibody levels.Discussion Considering the biological properties of LPAs in the pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis, modulation of ATX might be compensatory biological responses to suppress immunological overreaction especially in the lung, which is an important underlying mechanism for the mortality of the disease.Conclusions COVID-19 patients showed a decrease in the serum levels of ATX, irrespective of the disease severity. Key MessagesAutotaxin (ATX) is an enzyme involved in the synthesis of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), which has been reported to be involved in pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. Patients with COVID-19 show decrease in the serum levels of ATX. Modulation of ATX might be compensatory biological responses to suppress immunological overreaction.

Background Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is characterized by increased cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure of unknown cause. It has been suggested that the inflammatory process plays a role in the pathophysiology of the disease. Sortilin-1, lipocalin-2, autotaxin, decorin, and interleukin-33 (IL-33) are among the factors involved in inflammatory processes. Objective To investigate the CSF levels of sortilin-1, lipocalin-2, autotaxin, decorin, and IL-33 in patients with IIH. Methods A total of 24 IIH patients and 21 healthy controls were included in the study. Demographic characteristics of the patients and of the control group as well as CSF pressures were evaluated. Sortilin-1, lipocalin-2, autotaxin, decorin and IL-33 levels in the CSF were measured. Results The CSF levels lipocalin-2, sortilin-1, autotaxin, IL-33 and CSF pressure were significantly higher in the patients group compared with the control group (p

Chemoprevention of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is highly desirable in clinic. Berberine (BBR) is reported to play potential roles in cancer treatment and prevention. We studied the chemopreventive effect of BBR on hepatocellular carcinogenesis in an inflammation-driven mouse model, as it was enriched in liver after oral administration. Oral BBR significantly decreased the number and volume of visible nodular tumors, and prolonged the median overall survival by 9 and 8 weeks in the diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-injected male and female mice respectively. The nodular tumors were induced through activation of the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) pathway in liver. LPA stimulated the abnormal leptin transcription through interacting with LPA receptor-2 (LPAR2) followed by p38 activation, and BBR inhibited carcinogenesis by suppressing the bioactivity of LPA. Specifically, BBR significantly reduced the expression of the LPA synthetase autotaxin (ATX) and LPAR2 in the nodular tumors of DEN-injected mice. Subsequently, BBR repressed the abnormal transcription of leptin stimulated by LPA-induced phosphorylation of p38 in hepatoma cells. In fact, BBR reduced the abnormal expression of leptin in livers of DEN-injected male mice throughout the course of an 8-month experiment. BBR might be a preventive agent for HCC, working at least partially through antagonizing the ATX-LPA-LPAR2-p38-leptin axis in liver.

Autotaxin (ATX), the key enzyme that generates lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) from lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), is involved in tumorigenesis through the ATX-LPA axis and is regarded as a valuable target in tumor therapy. Hypoxia is a major feature of solid tumors and contributes to tumor development with striking alterations in the gene expression profile. Here, we show that hypoxia induces ATX expression in a hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 2α-dependent fashion in human colon cancer SW480 cells. HIF-2α is directly bound to specific hypoxia response elements (HREs) in the ATX promoter. Under hypoxic conditions, knockout or inhibition of ATX suppressed the migration of SW480 cells, which could be rescued by the addition of LPA, suggesting that the induction of ATX during hypoxia promotes cancer cell migration through the ATX-LPA axis. Further studies showed that ATX expression was induced by HIF-2α through recruiting p300/CBP, which led to crotonylation but not acetylation of histone H3 in the ATX promoter region during hypoxia. Moreover, elevation of cellular histone crotonylation levels could induce ATX expression under normoxic conditions. In conclusion, our findings reveal that ATX is induced in SW480 cells during hypoxia by histone crotonylation in a HIF-2α-dependent manner, while as a novel mechanism of ATX expression regulation, the upregulation of ATX expression by histone crotonylation is not confined to hypoxia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autotaxin, encoded by the ENPP2 gene, is a known key element of neuropathic pain; however, its involvement in nociceptive pain processing remains unclear. We explored the associations between postoperative pain intensity, 24-h postoperative opioid dose requirements, and 93 ENNP2-gene single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 362 healthy patients who underwent cosmetic surgery using the dominant, recessive, and genotypic models. Next, we validated the associations between relevant SNPs on the one hand and pain intensity and daily opioid dosages on the other in 89 patients with cancer-related pain. In this validation study, a Bonferroni correction for multiplicity was applied on all relevant SNPs of the ENPP2 gene and their respective models. In the exploratory study, three models of two SNPs (rs7832704 and rs2249015) were significantly associated with postoperative opioid doses, although the postoperative pain intensity was comparable. In the validation study, the three models of the two SNPs were also significantly associated with cancer pain intensity (p < 0.017). Patients with a minor allele homozygosity complained of more severe pain compared with patients with other genotypes when using comparable daily opioid doses. Our findings might suggest that autotaxin is associated with nociceptive pain processing and the regulation of opioid requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there is increasing evidence that oxidative stress and inflammation induced by COVID-19 may contribute to increased risk and severity of thromboses, the underlying mechanism(s) remain to be understood. The purpose of this review is to highlight the role of blood lipids in association with thrombosis events observed in COVID-19 patients. Among different types of phospholipases A2 that target cell membrane phospholipids, there is increasing focus on the inflammatory secretory phospholipase A2 IIA (sPLA2-IIA), which is associated with the severity of COVID-19. Analysis indicates increased sPLA2-IIA levels together with eicosanoids in the sera of COVID patients. sPLA2 could metabolise phospholipids in platelets, erythrocytes, and endothelial cells to produce arachidonic acid (ARA) and lysophospholipids. Arachidonic acid in platelets is metabolised to prostaglandin H2 and thromboxane A2, known for their pro-coagulation and vasoconstrictive properties. Lysophospholipids, such as lysophosphatidylcholine, could be metabolised by autotaxin (ATX) and further converted to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). Increased ATX has been found in the serum of patients with COVID-19, and LPA has recently been found to induce NETosis, a clotting mechanism triggered by the release of extracellular fibres from neutrophils and a key feature of the COVID-19 hypercoagulable state. PLA2 could also catalyse the formation of platelet activating factor (PAF) from membrane ether phospholipids. Many of the above lipid mediators are increased in the blood of patients with COVID-19. Together, findings from analyses of blood lipids in COVID-19 patients suggest an important role for metabolites of sPLA2-IIA in COVID-19-associated coagulopathy (CAC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neointimal hyperplasia is characterized by a loss of the contractile phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Our group has recently shown that VSMC proliferation and migration are mediated by lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) during restenosis, but the role of autotaxin (ATX; lysophospholipase D), which produces LPA, remains unclear. Endothelial denudation of the mouse carotid artery was performed to induce neointimal hyperplasia, and the extent of damage caused by the ATX-LPA axis was assessed in VSMCs. We observed the upregulation of ATX activity (p < 0.0002) in the injured carotid artery using an AR2 probe fluorescence assay. Further, the tissue carotid LPA levels were elevated 2.7-fold in carotid vessels, augmenting neointimal hyperplasia. We used an electrical cell–substrate impedance sensor (ECIS) to measure VSMC proliferation and migration. Treatment with an ATX inhibitor (PF8380) or LPA receptor inhibitor (Ki16425) attenuated VSMC proliferation (extracellular signal-regulated kinases) activity and migration in response to recombinant ATX. Indeed, PF8380 treatment rescued the aggravated post-wire injury neointima formation of carotid arteries. The upregulation of ATX following vessel injury leads to LPA production in VSMCs, favoring restenosis. Our observations suggest that inhibition of the ATX-LPA axis could be therapeutically targeted in restenosis to minimize VSMC phenotypic modulation and inflammation after vascular injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]