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With the proliferation of physical military and commercial sensors, and increasing use of open source social media data for situation understanding, traditional stove-piped exploitation solutions no longer achieve required accuracy in a timely manner. Alternatively, the new cloud technologies are not appropriate for situation understanding in areas of denial, where computation resources are limited, data not easily moved around, and communication highly constrained and unreliable. D-SPACE is a Distributed Sensing and Processing Adaptive Collaborative Environment designed to perform large-scale data queries in resource-constrained domains, where the data comes from diverse sources, modalities, and contains high degree of interdependencies among the variables. D-SPACE represents such data as large-scale graphs, enabling online graph analytics via inexact graph matching process. D-SPACE distributes graph exploitation among a network of autonomous computational resources, designs the collaboration policy among them, and assures that processing is robust to communication and resource failures. D-SPACE achieves its objectives by highly efficient work balancing among the resources, graph data indexing, message compression and prioritization to reduce communication load, and adaptive roll-back, re-planning, and re-biasing to deal with communication delays and resource failures. When complete, D-SPACE will provide increased autonomy, improved analysis accuracy, and fault-tolerance, while decreasing the time required for data processing., The original document contains color images.

The changing focus of military operations from a traditional, kinetic approach to stability and support operations places greater emphasis on the cultural knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) needed for mission success. Given the variability in interpretation and application of such KSAs, a scientific approach is needed to understand what cultural skills are necessary in what situations. In response to that need, Aptima worked with the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences to develop frameworks of cross-cultural competencies and contextual attributes. The competency framework developed outlines 15 general cross-cultural competencies needed for effective cross-cultural performance. The contextual attribute framework puts forth seven categories by which to describe the situation surrounding cross-cultural interactions. The frameworks were then used to qualitatively code 334 real examples of cross-cultural interactions in order to map the context to competencies. Results demonstrate that situational characteristics impact the display of cross-cultural competencies. Results from this research can be used to develop training scenarios that are tailored to specific missions and situations. The scenarios can be used to have military personnel analyze the important pieces surrounding a cross-culture interaction and also develop the cross-cultural competencies most likely to be needed within that situation.

The Army trains battalion and higher units in Mission Command during realistic week-long exercises. Observer/coach/trainers (OCTs) shape the exercise scenario to the unit commander s training objectives, provide training and advice, and conduct after action reviews (AARs). With reduced resources, OCTs have limited access to the unit members physical and digital interactions, preventing a complete understanding of their activities and performance. The purpose of this research was to determine what information about unit interactions was important and difficult to monitor, yet could be provided via recording, analysis, and display technology. OCTs were observed, interviewed and surveyed to create a list of requirements for a Command Operations Dashboard (COD) providing real-time access to communications data. To achieve these requirements, the COD uses a plug-in architecture to collect communications data and metadata into a unified database, a composable analytic framework to unobtrusively and objectively assess team states, and a user interface showing raw and analyzed data. The COD will be evaluated for its utility and usability in helping OCTs 1) to determine parts of the unit needing more support, 2) to identify healthy and harmful interaction patterns, and 3) to improve training by moving from AAR to current action assessment., Presented at the 19th International Command & Control Research & Technology Symposium (ICCRTS) held 16-19 June, 2014 in Alexandria, VA. Supported in part by DARPA.

Simulation-based Aviation Training Exercises are critical for preparing U.S. Army Combat Aviation Brigades for deployment. However, while offering the opportunity to practice mission segments at the unit level, the effectiveness of this training remains unclear due to a need for objective assessments focused on observable team behavior. Unit Commanders and trainers need tools for measuring collective task performance in order to understand performance gains, facilitate feedback, and guide the learning of aviation tactical teams. To address this challenge, a set of aviation team performance measures were developed, data were collected to validate these measures, and strategies were created to facilitate application of the measures to collective training events. The measures used behaviorally-based observations to assess performance of aviation tactical teams. The measures were evaluated at multiple training events to assess overall utility. Data were collected on inter-rater reliability and on agreement between the measures and overall mission performance. Results provided evidence of both acceptable reliability and validity for the measures. Moreover, requirements were developed for electronic data collection tools that can be used by unit Commanders and trainers to assess team performance at collective training exercises.

To achieve the technology goals for the Army Learning Model (ALM), there is a need for a set of guidelines that will support training designers and developers in identifying and effectively incorporating new learning technologies into training. Such technology specification guidelines and principles must support the goals of the ALM by taking into account technology effectiveness for training across various environments, ranging from traditional schoolhouse courses to more dynamic operational environments. Thus, Army training development must include a process to support the selection of learning technology that is compatible with the training environment, pedagogically appropriate, and cost effective. This report describes the development of a principled technology specification process that enables training developers to comprehensively consider various aspects of training. The process, driven both by sound scientific principles on how best to integrate technology into training and operational reality, contains three main factors: Learning Requirements, Technology Attributes, and Resources and Constraints. The process guides the user through considerations within each of those factors to facilitate critical thinking about the technology so that it will best meet learning needs within the ALM.

This effort focuses on the development, analysis, and evaluation of measurement tools for submarine navigation teams, including support of Future Naval Capabilities efforts, and in particular, the 10-02, Adaptive Training for Submarine Navigation and Piloting (AT-SNAP) program. The primary challenge was to explore methods to automatically assess team processes in ways that are not fully dependent on instructors or observers, as is presently the case. This effort aimed to identify techniques that can automatically assess various aspects of the performance of submarine navigation teams. The Aptima team, while supporting Dr. David Kern (AT-SNAP program manager) and Sandia National Laboratories, studied the use of Sociometric Badges (produced by Sociometric Solutions, Inc.) to supplement data collection efforts. The Sociometric Badges are unobtrusive pieces of hardware that employ multiple sensors to collect various types of data as teams of people interact in complex mission environments. The badges were used to collect data as submarine crews performed exercises in Submarine Piloting and Navigation trainers during a two-day study at the Naval Submarine School in Groton, Connecticut. Although this effort is exploratory, preliminary results suggest a number of findings that speak to the benefit of Sociometric Badge technology when applied to the undersea warfare domain., The original document contains color images.

Making definitive attributions concerning satellite anomalies proves to be a challenging endeavor given the dynamic space environment, the threat of adversarial actions, and unanticipated system failures. Further, decision makers are usually contending with performance-shaping factors such as time pressure and the knowledge that errors can be extremely costly. Significant consequences can emerge with erroneous conclusions, whether it's failing to thwart an adversary's attack against our space assets, or misconstruing an environmental effect for a hostile action that drives a response. Although accurate and reliable measurements of the disturbances in the earth's magnetic field and the flux of high energy protons and electrons have been available for decades, it remains challenging to translate these data into actionable information concerning the potential threat to on-orbit assets. Even though satellite operators actively monitor these hazards, until very recently there has been a limited statistical relationship between the measured radiation environment and the likelihood of an anomaly to the on-orbit asset. To address this need, the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) is supporting work to make space environmental effects information more accessible and actionable for users in the operational community. The tool under development leverages O'Brien's hazard quotients (which are derived from historical records of on-orbit anomalies) to relay the potential effect by presenting anomaly likelihood information related to surface charging, internal charging, single-event effects, and the total accumulated particle dose., Presented at the Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance (AMOS) Technologies Conference held in Maui, Hawaii, on 12-16 September 2011.

The increasingly complex interactions of systems of systems for training today's military means that supporting joint training exercises includes supporting live, virtual and constructive simulations. Capturing and integrating observer-based measures with other data sources is essential for supporting complete assessment of training exercises. The Joint After Action Review Repository Library (JAAR) is a suite of software tools, linked through a common architecture that leverages a number of efforts across Services and is made available to, and has been used by, various end-user training organizations. Joint Measurement Operations Control (JMOC) successfully integrated the SPOTLITE platform for the collection of observer-based measures into the JAAR. JMOC also provided measures to support both exercises and the JAAR program by using observer-based measures to capture performance on the installation and training for JAAR integrations and deployments. Finally, the efforts of JMOC constitute a foundation for transitioning other measurement technologies into the JAAR., Prepared in cooperation with Army Research Institute (ARI), Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD.

The objective of the research was to develop a computer-mediated training environment to prepare ground component forces with the necessary cognitive skills for the emerging challenges of a Joint and expeditionary force. A key element of such a mindset is to be comfortable and proficient in interacting with people from different specialties for the purpose of collaborative problem solving at the boundaries between the known and the knowable. The product of this effort, Socrates Window, provides an open-source web-based solution that has the potential to facilitate interactions between students, instructors, and outside experts that blends classroom-based learning with distance learning. Evidence from stakeholders and end users, such as small group instructors in Army training and education, indicates that Socrates Window has both value and utility. It is not usable, however, in programs of instruction for which information technology and security constraints de-motivate use of social networking tools., Prepared in cooperation with Wexford Group International, Mattapoisett, MA, IMPRIMIS, Inc., Colorado Springs, CO, Wexford Group International, Southern Pines, NC and Augustine Consulting, Inc, Monterey, CA.

With high operational tempo and increasingly complex operational environments, the U. S. Army is increasingly using game-based training as a lower cost and more time-effective training method for both individual and collective training of tactical skills. However, there has been little empirical evidence to demonstrate the effectiveness of game-based training and to help leaders make decisions about their use. In response to the need for more evidence regarding the effectiveness of game-based training (GBT), an evaluation of training games supported by Virtual Battle Space 2 (VBS2): U.S. Army was conducted in operational settings. This report describes the methods, measures, and results of an evaluation with 165 Soldiers participating in GBT. Pre- and post-measures were administered that focused on measuring training effectiveness through individual level (e.g., task performance) and unit level (e.g., unit effectiveness) outcomes. Results demonstrate that, in general, the training influenced both individual (e.g., task performance) and unit level (e.g., unit cohesion) outcomes. In addition, situational characteristics (the amount the unit prepared for the training and the level of leader involvement during the training) influenced both types of outcomes.

Although the Army developed the after action review (AAR) for live simulation, it is now applying the process to exercises conducted within virtual environments. Virtual AAR systems provide can significantly facilitate understanding of scenario performance; however, these systems require automated performance assessment capabilities to realize their full potential. We developed Automated Support for AAR Presentation (ASAP), a suite of intelligent technologies designed to enhance virtual AAR systems such as the Dismounted Infantry Virtual After Action Review System (DIVAARS). For this effort, Aptima leveraged its A-Measure product, which provides automated support for authoring, capturing, and synthesizing measures of human performance in simulated environments. The team worked closely with subject matter experts to design a system that enables search and synthesis of simulation-based performance data. Moreover, it organized analytical conclusions into various formats that integrated with AAR systems such as DIVAARS. The resulting toolkit enhanced the capabilities of AAR systems and provided intelligent event recognition and assessment support that extends a human observer's ability to document, understand, and describe scenario-based performance.

The Army Research Institute Ft. Benning Research Unit and the Henry Caro Noncommissioned Officer Academy at Ft. Benning identified the need to create an objective assessment scheme for the Infantry Basic Noncommissioned Officer Course (BNCOC). The intent was to produce an assessment instrument that could be used for formative and summative assessment both of different versions of BNCOC and also of different research interventions into BNCOC. Assessment instruments were developed for two major training modules: small arms proficiency training (SAPT) and troop leading procedures (TLP). During development of the assessment instruments, the Infantry BNCOC pedagogical model changed from direct, instructor-led training to outcome-based training and education (OBTE) and a corresponding emphasis on intangibles. With the change to OBTE, the SAPT and TLP instruments are now being used by BNCOC cadre as instructional job aids. Lessons learned from both instruments were incorporated into an outline for OBTE instructor preparation. Additionally, both instruments will serve as foundation for follow-on development of assessments of the effect of research interventions associated with OBTE upon BNCOC students., Prepared in cooperation with Wexford Group, Int., Mattapoiset, MA and IMPRIMIS, Inc., Colorado Springs, CO.

Current command and control (C2) operations are centered on addressing the root causes of state failure and instability. For success, these C2 operations require the cooperation of local populations and governments. To win this cooperation, we need to be able to predict changes in the opinions of local populations. Cultural identity is a critical factor in this process. These cultural identities are multi-layered and dynamic. In order to predict the impact of events on a population's attitude, one must remember that each person has several different identities and that some of these identities may change. Further people's attitudes change based on their contact with other individuals. When people's attitudes change, then their participation in groups changes as well. SCIPR (Simulation of Cultural Identities for Prediction of Reactions) is an agent based computer simulation that forecasts the effects of actions on peoples' opinions and cultural identities to better model the underlying forces driving attitude based conflicts. In this paper, we will describe the development of the SCIPR model and its application for current C2 operations., Presented at the AFCEA-GMU C4I Center Symposium "Critical Issues C4I" held at George Mason University, Fairfax, VA on 20-21 May 2008. Prepared in cooperation with University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY.

Today's military missions are not against other nation-states. Rather, they are against irregular forces engaged in terrorist or insurgent activities. A large part of waging successful counter-insurgency campaigns involves reducing or eliminating local support for the insurgents by convincing people that it is in not in their interest to support or join an insurgency. The Simulation of Cultural Identities for Prediction of Reactions (SCIPR) tool is designed to help military planners answer the question: "How will a particular course of action (COA) or sequence of events affect the attitudes or actions of a particular population?" At the core of SCIPR is an agent based model where agents, in response to events, change their affiliations and their attitudes based on the principles of social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978) and Social Influence Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This paper describes the development of the SCIPR model and its use by military planners., Performed in cooperation with Project Performance Company, McLean, VA. Presented at the International Conference on Computational Cultural Dynamics (ICCCD) held in College Park, Maryland on 15-16 September 2008.

Cognitive Particles is a step toward realizing the ability to develop autonomous components (particles) that are capable of coordinating to come together and form a desired object. Automated shape assembly and disassembly from a collection of particles would allow incredible resource availability and flexibility in domains ranging from the highly specialized and time-critical (soldiers in the field or medical technicians in the operating room) to the more mundane. In this work, we first developed theoretical concepts supporting the development and coordination of autonomous shape-forming particles. Building on this foundation, we constructed a 3-dimensional particle simulation testbed to enable experimentation regarding hypotheses about the processes and structures required for automated shape assembly., The original document contains color images.

Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB) provides critical support for military planning and decision making. In both offensive and defensive operations, the IPB process gives a decision maker information about the enemy, including potential courses of action, as well as information about the environment in which he is working. Physical structures that can support repetitive crimes (such as IED supply chains or illegal drug trafficking) provide important information for C2 planning. Activities of interest must be situated somewhere, and the physical structures present in any given location change slowly. Knowledge of those structures and their capabilities therefore provide an effective lens through which to view activities, and therefore an effective means for attacking the problem. In this paper we discuss the Facility Identification via Networks with Adaptive Links (FINAL) technology that Aptima is developing to find facilities associated with adversarial actions and discover the intent for their use. Based on algorithms that perform probabilistic network pattern identification from partial knowledge about network nodes, links, and their attributes, FINAL profiles the use of facilities by combining networks of data describing actual conditions and more abstract network models of repetitive crimes., Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium, (ICCRTS 2008) (13th), held in Seattle, WA, on 17-19 June 2008. Document includes briefing charts in addition to text. The original document contains color images.

A key challenge for battlefield simulation is the estimation of enemy courses of action (COAs). Current adversarial COA development is a manual time-consuming process prone to errors due to limited knowledge about the adversary and its ability to adapt. Development of decision aids that can predict adversary's intent and range of possible behaviors, as well as automation of such technologies within battlefield simulations, would greatly enhance the efficacy of training and mission rehearsal solutions. In this paper, we describe the development of OPFOR agents that can intelligently learn BLUEFOR's mission plan. This knowledge will allow OPFOR agent to reason about the intent of BLUE and counteract accordingly to prevent/influence the future BLUEFOR's operations by affecting current operations, challenging BLUE's resources, and preparing OPFOR for future battles., Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposia (13th) (ICCRTS 2008) held in Seattle, WA on 17-19 Jun 2008. Document includes briefing charts (25 slides, title same as report). The original document contains color images.

The U.S. Navy is developing new maritime strategies and command structures to guide transformation efforts, to ensure the security of the global maritime commons in the new network-centric era, and to fit the challenges of the 21st century. The addition of an intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) commander is one such innovative structural innovation that is under consideration. To empirically investigate different conceptualizations of ISR officers, we contrasted an ISR officer who coordinated--but did not own--ISR assets with an officer that coordinated--and owned--all ISR assets under low and high intensity mission conditions. Four teams comprised of three active duty officers were assigned to coordination or command ISR conditions and participated in two 90 minute experimental sessions using the Distributed Dynamic Decision-making simulator. The findings show that when task intensity was high the percentage of tasks correctly processed was higher when the ISR officer was a commander than a coordinator. We also found attack accuracy to be higher and action latency lower when mission intensity was high and the ISR officer was a commander. Implications for command and control organizations are discussed., Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (13th) (ICCRTS 2008) held in Seattle, WA on 17-19 Jun 2008. The original document contains color images.

This study fills a void in the literature on skill decay by incorporating a cognitively complex task and an extended nonuse period. Using 192 paid participants who trained for approximately 17 hours on a command-and-control microworld simulation, we examined the effectiveness of distributed versus massed practice and post-acquisition observational rehearsal in minimizing skill decay and facilitating adaptive transfer and reacquisition after an 8-week nonuse period. We also examined how individual differences in ability and motivation predicted retention, transfer, and reacquisition as well as participation in voluntary post-acquisition observational rehearsal. Results showed that distributed practice had a positive effect on skill retention and post-observational rehearsal had a positive effect on transfer. Although some individual differences (e.g., self-efficacy) were consistently associated with retention, transfer, and reacquisition, overall levels of prediction were relatively weak, especially for transfer. Differences in motivation rather than ability differentiated individuals who participated in voluntary rehearsal from those who did not., Prepared in collaboration with Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), Mesa, AZ. Prepared in cooperation with Texas A&M University and University of Oklahoma. Sponsored in part by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).

ELECTRONIC FILE CHARACTERISTICS: 25 files; Adobe Acrobat (.PDF), MS Word (.DOC), MS PowerPoint (.PPT), video files (.WMV) and HTML. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: 1 CD-ROM and 1 hard-copy document; 4 3/4 in.; 44.4 MB. ABSTRACT: Success in military operations increasingly rests on the ability of small units to counter asymmetric threats in the varied and foreign urban settings that typify the contemporary operating environment. However, the physical dimensions and cultural characteristics of urban environments dramatically compress and complicate the dynamics of space and time so fundamental to visualizing and executing company and platoon operations. A cognitive task analysis (CTA) was conducted to identify training requirements for limited prototype training development. The OTA underscored the need for visualization training in small units and identified a related set of training principles and associated techniques. On that basis, prototype examples of visualization training were developed in five modules that feature scenario-based contexts, multimedia delivery, and deliberate practice. The prototype training examples are provided to guide future development of visualization training at the small unit level.

Success in military operations increasingly rests on the ability of small units to counter asymmetric threats in the varied and foreign urban settings that typify the contemporary operating environment (COE). However, the physical dimensions and cultural characteristics of urban environments dramatically compress and complicate the dynamics of space and time so fundamental to visualizing and executing company and platoon operations. To help leaders visualize the interactions of space and time (VISTA), a cognitive task analysis (CTA) was conducted based on workshops with active and retired military personnel (n = 50). The CTA used a representative scenario and supporting vignettes to elicit and identify the cognitive skills required to visualize time and space patterns in the COE such as vehicle and human traffic, tribal and political boundaries, and culturally sacred structures. The CTA underscored the need for visualization training in small units and identified a related set of training principles, stages, and techniques. On that basis, prototype examples of visualization training were developed in five modules that feature scenario-based contexts, multimedia delivery, and deliberate practice. A limited evaluation of the training resulted in positive and constructive guidance for future development and utilization.

During a deliberate attack on an insurgent-held city, a Marine infantry company receives fire from a small building next to a mosque. What should the artillery Forward Observer (FO) do? The answer depends on context. If the fire coming from the building causes casualties, the FO should conduct an Immediate Suppression mission. If the insurgents' fires do not have any effects on the Marines below and they can take cover, the FO needs to formulate a course of action with the company commander. How would we measure FO performance in simulator-based training for this scenario? It's not enough simply to take obvious measurements like target location error or target/ammunition combination. We must have an understanding of the FO's context, and measure and assess the FO's performance accordingly. The performance measurement infrastructure in the training environment must support these activities. In this talk, we discuss a formal representation of context for human performance measurement in immersive training environments and how that representation fits into an innovative language for expressing those measurements, Human Performance Measurement Language (HPML). We show how context plays a role both as triggers for measurements and as key information for assessments, and demonstrate a method for convenient elicitation of context information from expert instructor/operators. We provide illustrative examples of training mission contexts and show how they may be represented using this formalism. We further discuss how we have implemented context representation capabilities in real-world simulator-based training situations, including a forward observer simulator operating in a variant of a Distributed Virtual Training Environment-based federation and an F/A-18 simulator flying in a Navy Aviation Simulation Master Plan-based federation., Presented at the Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation, and Education Conference (I/ITSEC), held in Orlando, FL, on 4-7 Dec 2006. Published in the proceedings of the conference, paper no. 2856, 2006. Prepared in collaboration with NAVAIR Training Systems Division, Orlando, FL. Sponsored in part by Navy Program Manager for Aviation 205.

The dynamic nature of hostile, urban environments has resulted in an increased interest in novel command and control (C2) technologies and associated tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs). However, the introduction of new technologies to support C2 significantly impacts performance and effectiveness of military forces. The goal of our research was to support the assessment of novel Communications, Command, Control and Intelligence (C3I) technologies that addressed various challenges of Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT). Our novel approach combined the strengths of field assessment with virtual and constructive simulations, which can quantify the effects of technologies and associated TTPs that span a wide range of capabilities; including sensing, situation awareness/command and control (SA/C2), and shaping components. These evaluation capabilities are complemented by support for optimizing TTPs and organizational structure to improve performance across a variety of metrics (e.g. mission completion time, execution tempo, team task load, etc.). Initial assessments were validated by comparing results from field studies and simulations, which confirmed that our approach identified force-multiplying effects of emerging technologies., The original document contains color images. Presented at the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (2006 CCRTS) held in San Diego, CA on 20-22 Jun 2006. Published in the Proceedings of the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (2006 CCRTS) Jun 2006.

ELECTRONIC FILE CHARACTERISTICS: 23 files; Adobe Acrobat (.PDF), text files (.TXT) and simulation software. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: 1 CD-ROM; 4 3/4 in.; 121 MB. ABSTRACT: The Red Cape training product is the result of a collaborative research project by the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences and the Indiana Army National Guard. The intent of the research was to develop training to improve emergency operations decision making, planning, and execution for Army National Guard and civil-military, interagency leaders. The training uses cognitive battle drills to apply deliberate practice training concepts to nine expen crisis management skills, such as keeping a focus on the mission priorities, seeing the big picture, and re-prioritizing as necessary. The Red Cape training involves the presentation of theme-based situations to train expert behaviors. The prototype system includes an initial set of I S vignettes with expert solutions. The present research product provides the materials needed to implement the Red Cape training.

We focus on a means to code voice communications and derive communication measures because communication plays such a critical role in military decision making and mission accomplishment. Voice communication has proved labor intensive to code manually and, beyond simple counts of utterances, has proved relatively intractable to automate coding even for powerful computers. The methodology we describe has the potential to alleviate a significant portion of the current coding burden. It only assumes there is a technology to count the number of utterances per trial. The process involves randomly selecting a subsample from a larger data set, manually coding the subsample using standard manual coding procedures to produce a small set of communication measures, constructing regression models using corrected part-whole correlations to predict each communication measure from the number of utterances, and applying the models to predict communication measures for the remaining part of the data set. This methodology was tested using data from a recent study. Results revealed acceptable corrected part-whole correlations and subsequent regression models. Moreover, predicted communication scores from the subsample based regression models showed similar communication patterns found for scores derived from the whole sample. Implications of these finds are discussed., Presented at the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (CCRTS) held in San Diego, CA on 20-22 Jun 2006. Published in the Proceedings of the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (CCRTS), 2006. Includes briefing charts. The original document contains color images.

In this paper, we present innovative approaches and algorithms for the design of Command and Control (C2) structures, mission planning, and course of action development. These models are integrated into the PERsonnel-based Unit of Action Design Environment (PERSUADE). PERSUADE converts a textual description of mission and a graphical representation of an organization into quantitative models, and through optimization algorithms (Levchuk et al., 2002, 2004) validated in several empirical studies (Kleinman et al., 2003; Levchuk et al., 2003; Entin et al., 2003; Diedrich et al., 2003) will help the commanders at various echelons to synthesize command and control organizations tailored for a specific mission set. Our studies show that organizations designed using the PERSUADE methodology outperform their traditionally designed counterparts., Prepared in cooperation with the University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. Presented at the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium held in San Diego, CA, on 20-22 Jun 2006 and published in the proceedings of the same. The original document contains color images.

Network centric warfare promises to increase information sharing and allow distribution of decision making. This will improve military effectiveness, but only if the situational awareness (SA) of warfighters is correctly aligned. Modern natural language processing techniques, such as Network Text Analysis (Carley, 1993), are designed to infer the cognitive states of individuals and groups engaged in cognitive collaboration and measure group SA by exploiting data on the information that team members access and generate. An integrated software application, IMAGES, utilizes AutoMap (Diesner & Carley, 2004) as the primary analysis engine to take advantage of the large amounts of communication and report text that naturally occur in collaborative environments. The text generated in the normal course of work is collected and changed into forms that can be compared and analyzed. A comparison of networks based on text from several individuals or groups yields information about the similarity of their respective mental models. Differences among maps may reflect misalignments of SA, which can be remedied by information sharing and targeted communication. An exercise was conducted to assess the potential of NTA as implemented in AutoMap and IMAGES. The results indicate that NTA will allow analysts to effectively assess SA through passive means., The original document contains color images.

The Expeditionary Strike Group (ESG) is a versatile military organization, designed to effectively handle missions as diverse as air warfare, tactical ballistic missile defense, and maritime interdiction operations. Over the past several years, ESG organizations have allocated command responsibilities in several ways, each permutation affecting organizational dynamics. The Adaptive Architectures for Command and Control (A2C2) program has been using model-based experimentation to investigate the congruence of organizational structure with mission requirements. The ESG provides an opportunity to apply the principles developed in previous A2C2 research to a rapidly evolving operational organization. Relevant doctrine and case studies were reviewed, current operational personnel were interviewed, and observations were made in an ESG during routine operations. This led to insight about questions of interest for the Navy, such as the allocation of Composite Warfare Command (CWC) roles, the inclusion of an ISR coordinator, and the division of tasks under both CWC and Joint Amphibious Doctrine. This information will be used to increase the fidelity of the representations and processes used in models, to create realistic scenarios, and to help with experimental designs that can inform decisions about organizational structure., The original document contains color images.

When learning to perform a task it is critical to have opportunities to practice the required behaviors. However, to be maximally effective, it is also the case that such practice needs to be accompanied by meaningful feedback to guide learning. Moreover, when considering how best to measure performance for feedback, it is critical to realize that there are multiple classes of performance measurement that are each essential, and unique, in their own right, including systems-based and observer-based measures. In the work reported here, we address this issue by focusing on a system that enables the collection and the integration of systems-based and observer-based measures. By providing an ability to collect and represent these measures in a common format, we have enabled the use of a wide range of feedback for trainees in simulation-based environments. Not only can complex measures be taken, but observer-based feedback can be integrated quickly and seamlessly, bypassing the traditional time associated with manual processing of observations.

NEtwork Modeling Environment for Structural Intervention Strategies (NEMESIS) is a collaboration and integration environment for state-of-the-art network organizational analysis tools. It provides a mechanism for versioning of collaborative artifacts such as models and reports that is coordinated with analysts' workflow (in the form of local task lists), for maximum convenience and minimum obtrusiveness. The NEMESIS integration architecture is bus-oriented and is centered around an XML Schema based language named Organizational Description Language (ODL), which provides a basis for tools to communicate but also provides a means to accommodate the unique data representation needs of specific tools. One network analytical tool, Adaptive Safety and Monitoring (ASAM). matches transactions against a pattern library and manages the uncertainties of the association. ASAM was extended in the second year of NEMESIS to include multiple model tracking, multiple hypothesis testing, and feature-aided tracking. The result was evaluated by SMEs, and their feedback was incorporated. Another tool, Organizational Risk Analysis (ORA), uses an extended dynamic social network representation to determine organizational strengths and vulnerabilities. ORA was evaluated by SMEs, and their feedback was incorporated. A TIE with Cycorp allowed knowledge from their Terrorism Knowledge Base to be translated to ODL so that the NEMESIS integration environment could feed the result to ORA. The efforts of the second year built on the positive foundation of the first year, along the path of fuller system development and measurement in subsequent years, The original document contains color images. Program code: 2E20. Sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), Information Awareness Office (IAO). Prepared in cooperation with Univ. of Connecticut, Hartford, CT and Carnegie-Mellon Univ., Pittsburgh, PA.

In this paper, the authors present a methodology for quantifying the degree of fit between a mission and an organization based on the closeness between the task structure (i.e., resource requirements and task interdependence) and the Decision Maker-asset (DM) allocation across the organization (i.e., amount and distribution of resource capabilities among DMs and organizational processes). This closeness is based on three main characteristics of organizational performance: workload balance, communication requirements, and DM-DM dependence. These characteristics are affected, in turn, by the interactions and interdependencies of the organizational processes and the demands of the mission scenario. Invariably, coordination is essential to achieve good performance because the information required for decision making is often distributed. However, excessive DM-DM communication and coordination are harmful to performance, since they increase the processing workload/overhead that delays task execution. Performance improvements can be obtained by changing the structure and processes of an organization to decrease the requisite coordination, while balancing the levels of workload across the organization and reducing inter-DM dependence., Prepared in cooperation with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. The original document contains color images. Presented at the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium.

To counteract the enemy organization, knowledge of the principles under which this organization operates is required. This knowledge provides the ability to detect and predict the activities of the enemy and to select the appropriate counter-actions. Certain counter-actions require additional knowledge about enemy organization and processes ranging from the specifics of organizational command, control, communication and information distribution (C3I) structures to the responsibility delegation and goals at the most important enemy nodes. Our paper proposes to solve the problem of identifying the enemy organization and activities via the NetSTAR system employing a hybrid multi-phase model-based structure and process identification approach. The basis for NetSTAR is an innovative methodology that integrates a social network model of coordination, a meta-task model of enemy goals, and a Hidden-Markov Model (HMM) of enemy activities to detect subgroups engaged in coordinated activities. This model enables the computation of the likelihood of the hypothesized organizational structure and processes given the observed behavior, and allows designing effective dynamic counter-action strategies via Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes (POMDP) modeling., The original document contains color images. Presented at the 10th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS 2005) held in McLean, VA on 13-16 Jun 2005. Published in the Proceedings of the 10th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS 2005) Jun 2005.

This paper describes a quantitative Team Optimal Design (TOD) methodology and its application to the design of optimized manning for E-10 Multi-sensor Command and Control Aircraft. The E-10 (USAF, 2002) is intended to consolidate command and control (C2), battle management (BM), intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR), and selected information warfare (IW) functions and eventually replace elements of the current C2ISR force mix. Our TOD design approach allows specification of team configurations (number and roles of operators) for efficiently operating E-10 to execute mission scenarios of various contingencies. The objective is to maximize the speed of mission execution while balancing the workload among team members, provided the decision-making, expertise, workload threshold and organization cost constraints are satisfied. In order to analyze and simulate the operations of E-10, we conducted mission decomposition to define functional responsibilities for the E-10 within the context of an operational mission. Working with subject matter experts, we developed functional process flows of E-10 by decomposing each stage into representative functions. Each of these functions is in turn decomposed into high level task responsibilities, defining a directed graph of tasks with precedence/information flow constraints., Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (10th), ICCRTS'05, held in McLean, VA on 13-16 Jun 2005. The original document contains color images.

Network-centered Command and Control (C2) has great potential to increase military effectiveness, in some measure due to enhanced information sharing and dissemination techniques. However, for these technologies to be maximally effective, C2 organizations need to have the flexibility to tailor their organizational structures in response to changing mission In the experiment reported here, a model-based approach to supporting organizational adaptation was assessed. The purpose of this experiment was to explore ways in which obstacles to adaptation could be overcome. Teams of Naval Officers participated in three simulations of a joint forces mission on the Distributed Dynamic Decision-making (DDD) simulator (Serfaty & Kleinman, 1985; Kleinman & Serfaty, 1989). The match between organizational structure and mission task requirements was manipulated within-participants, resulting in differences in coordination requirements. Between the second and third simulated missions, participant teams were given the opportunity to select an organizational structure from a list of model-based, predefined organizational designs, to better accommodate the changing mission requirements. To support organizational change, model-based prospective information was provided to the teams. This support led to the adoption of better matched congruent organizations in each of the participant teams. Several measurement techniques were designed to evaluate both the degree of adaptation and its effect on mission performance., The original document contains color images. Presented at the 10th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS 2005) held in McLean, VA on 13-16 Jun 2005. Published in the Proceedings of the 10th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS 2005) Jun 2005.

The United States Navy is undergoing a rapid transformation in the operations it conducts - the types of enemies it faces, the resources it has to draw upon, the capabilities it can deliver, the manner in which it coordinates with other branches of the armed services, and the organizational structures it uses to bring those new resources and capabilities to bear against a new generation of enemies. To accommodate this rapid transformation, a revolution has been occurring that began with the development of the concept of "network-centric warfare" (NCW). NCW promises to deliver unprecedented operational tempo and situational awareness through networked connectivity. For the Navy, the NCW concept has evolved into the definition of FORCEnet as a future organizing principle. Given this rapid transformation, several questions emerge regarding how best to realize the FORCEnet vision. These questions involve issues such as organizational design, information flow, information filtering, and display technologies. Accordingly, in this report, we describe an effort to develop an integrated testbed to explore FORCEnet concepts and technologies. The testbed is unique in that it serves to unite research on novel FORCEnet architectures with research designed to develop innovative information displays to support network-centric operations. Our intent in this report is to briefly describe this testbed, which will enable future experimentation and validation of emerging concepts., Prepared in collaboration with Pacific Science & Engineering Group, San Diego, CA; Dept. of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT; Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA; and War Gaming Department, U.S. Naval War College, Newport, RI. Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (10th) held in McLean, VA 0n 13-16 June 2005. Briefing charts p15-29. The original document contains color images.

Accomplishments: (1) Developed methodology to design inter-dependent organization sub-structures (command, observation, communication, information); (2) Utilize the benefits and constraints of hierarchical, heterarchical, and hybrid structures; (3) Integrated structure-strategy optimization. Applications: Will provide innovative strategy and structure solutions for various levels and nodes of the FORCEnet., Presented at the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (9th), held in San Diego, CA, Jun 2004. Prepared in cooperation with University of Connecticut. Document consists entirely of briefing charts. The original document contains color images.

The technology of the Objective Force Warrior (OFW), though still in the conceptual stage, promises to revolutionize warfare by providing information in unprecedented volume, particularly about the locations of threats and other human participants. Ensuring that Soldiers employ OFW technologies well may require a second revolution that focuses on training decision-making skills of warfighters. Predicting the effects of conceptual OFW technologies on decision makers is challenging. This research addresses this problem by laying the groundwork for a simulator that will accommodate a full research program-from discovering and validating requirements to building training-and enable the Army to observe future technology effects. The work triangulated a series of methods-knowledge elicitation methods, analyses, and exercises on a simulation test bed-to systematically examine and test hypotheses concerning decision making with future battle technologies. Our exercise of the test bed suggests there will be positive effects of the technology, as well as unintended negative effects. For example, we observed that threat-sensing technology simulated in this test bed simplified and focused the operation, but may have lulled players into a false sense of confidence in the technology's capabilities.

The objective for this SBlR Phase II project was to increase the degree to which soldiers are able to apply classroom/computer-mediated training on-the-job and to capitalize on their present digital skills in the acquisition of new and changing digital skills. Aptima, Inc. and the Group for Organizational Effectiveness, Inc. used basic theories of learning transfer to create a two-module training package designed to increase digital skill adaptability. This Learning Skills Bridge learning accelerator training package (LSB) was pilot tested, revised, and re-tested. The study found that training designed to increase basic computer knowledge (e.g., the LSB) does result in learning transfer to the AFATDS. Specifically, the LSB training eliminated any group differences based on prior computer experience, and thus compensated for deficient computer experience. Also, participants scored significantly higher on the measures of AFATDS networks and AFATDS visualization and Mapping after LSB training than they did before the training. Further, 88.8% of participants reported that the LSB training improved their understanding of AFATDS. From these results it was concluded that generalizable, transferable digital skills taught in the context of device- and job-specific goals (such as with the LSB) has promise in increasing adaptability in the use of those digital skills., Prepared in cooperation with Group for Organizational Effectiveness, Inc., Slingerlands, NY.

We report on the development of an innovative program aimed at providing online teamwork training for distributed professionals performing complex, highly interdependent tasks. Examples of teams for which this training would be appropriate include special purpose (e.g., crisis response) teams within command control organizations and operations centers, special operations teams, and medical teams. To maximize learning and flexibility, the program couples synchronous and asynchronous approaches to online learning, uses video judiciously to illustrate teamwork in a specific domain, and uses team members as session leaders., Presented at the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (10th) held in Crete, Greece on 22-27 June 2003. Published in Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (10th) (2003), 991-995, Berlin, Germany, 27-29 Nov 2009.

Presented at the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposia (CCRTS) held in Washington, D. C. on 17-19 June 2003. The original document contains color images.

Different organizational structures are better matched to certain mission types than others (organizational congruence). Consequently, one way to achieve superior mission effectiveness is to switch between organizational structures when circumstances dictate. However, little is known about the variables that signal the need for such structural adaptation. To explore this issue, we used a model-based design process to create mission scenarios that were either matched (congruent) or mismatched (incongruent) with two organizational structures (Functional, Divisional). Results indicated that, as predicted on the basis of the coordination requirements imposed by the model-based design process, performance in the incongruent cases was characterized by increased communication, increased perceived workload, and degraded performance. Given these overall results, we explored these data further by analyzing communication patterns to identify how the organizations attempted to cope with the congruence problem. Our results indicated that the communication strategies employed in the face of incongruence depended on organizational structure/mission scenario pairings, suggesting that the specific signals of the need for structural adaptation will likely depend on context., Prepared in collaboration with the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Syposium (8th), ICCRTS '03, held in Washington, DC on 17-19 Jun 2003. The original document contains color images.

Organizations that adapt to changes in their environment have a much better chance at achieving their mission and performing well. When organizations do adapt they usually alter their strategies, but rarely do they change their organizational structure even when that structure no longer fits the mission. To identify the conditions that will be salient enough to cause organizations to alter not only their strategies, but also their current structures, we used a model-based design process to create mission scenarios that were either matched (congruent) or mismatched (incongruent) with two organizational structures (functional, divisional). We then examined measures over time to identify ones that discriminated between congruent and incongruent conditions early in the mission scenarios. Several measures of communications, performance and workload appeared to be good candidates for leading indicators of the need for organizational change., Prepared in collaboration with the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Syposium (8th), ICCRTS '03, held in Washington, DC on 17-19 Jun 2003. The original document contains color images.

This paper presents a comprehensive methodology for solving diverse problems arising in performance optimization of organizations operating in uncertain environments. We introduce a technique to decompose a multi-dimensional organizational design problem into a series of coupled sub-problems whose iterative solution produces a near-optimal organizational structure, and decision processes. We illustrate our approach via an example to provide a step-by-step visualization of the modeling of complex and uncertain missions, and of synthesizing the concomitant organizations to optimize different sets of design objectives, while satisfying organizational constraints. Our methodology incorporates algorithms for optimizing the expected outcomes, collaborative organizational strategies, distributed resource utilization, mission processing schedule, and information management in an organization. The methodology serves as a valuable tool to address many practical problems arising in organizational design., Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS) (7th), held in Quebec City, Canada, on 16-20 Sep 2002. Published in the Proceedings of the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS) (7th), 2002. Prepared in cooperation with University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. The original document contains color images.

We manipulated two variables predicted by models of team performance to affect team processes and performance: team organization and task load. In one team organization the team leader served as a manager only, without responsibility for prosecuting hostile tracks. In the other organization the team leader served as a player-manager. Task load was established by varying the number of hostile tracks. As hypothesized, teams performed at a higher level, that is took less time to act, when task load was low than high. Counter to predictions no performance differences were found between the two team organization conditions, but as anticipated, performance differed among team members by task load. Additionally, teams in which the team leader was a manager only were more proactive and transferred more information to other teammates without requests to do so, a communication pattern that has been shown to be indicative of high-performing teams., The original document contains color images. Presented at the International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (6th) Held in Annapolis, MD on 19-21 Jun 2001.

This paper describes a breakthrough organization/team design method; a systematic, formal quantitative approach to designing a team that best fits the mission to be accomplished. The Team Integrated Design Environment (TIDE) is a tool set designed to support this method, enabling the quantitative definition of requirements for command teams operating in complex mission environments. The TIDE methods and tools represent a powerful methodology to create novel organizational structures based on operational mission variables using quantitative methods., Original document contains color images. Pres. at RTO Information Systems Technology Panel (IST), Istanbul, Turkey 9-11 Oct 2000. This article is from ADA391919 New Information Processing Techniques for Military Systems (les Nouvelles techniques de traitement de l'information pour les systemes militaires) pKN2-1/KN2-11.

This paper reports on a project that addresses a critical need for tomorrow's Army: Training in the ability to adapt digital skills to the ever-changing evolution of technology. As outlined in this Phase I report, Aptima and the Group for Organizational Effectiveness (gOE) have lain the groundwork for an innovative, computer-based, digital-skills training package designed to increase the adaptability of digital skills. The key innovative idea is a modular training package that links fundamental digital knowledge to device-specific knowledge and to the specific tasks that soldiers are trained to perform. Generalizable, transferable digital skills are not taught in a vacuum, but instead are learned in the context of device- and job-specific goals. As the digitization of the battlefield progresses, tomorrow's soldiers must be able to adapt, innovate, and rapidly transfer digital knowledge and skills to new software and new equipment. Soldiers need training in transferable digital skills in addition to training in setting-up, using, and maintaining specific digital equipment. The training being developed - the prototype of which is described in this report - will have general applicability to any domain requiring general digital skills, and will be easily customized to provide maximum learning regardless of the digital system targeted.

Global Wargame '99 offered the A2C2 team a unique opportunity to witness a large-scale exploration of Network Centric Warfare (NCW) concepts in the context of an extended operational exercise. The team became involved in Global `99 three months prior to the game through their interaction with a team of warfighters with whom they conducted a training exercise at the Naval Postgraduate School entitled "Bridge to Global `99." During that training exercise, the A2C2 modeling team introduced a model-based organizational structure designed to optimally support the demands of the Global scenario. CCG1 and a staff of roughly 30 officers played the organization in a laboratory at the Naval Postgraduate School while the A2C2 assessment team observed, collected a range of performance measures, provided detailed feedback about the impacts of Information Technology (IT) tools, assessed the function of the organization relative to model predictions, and captured team processes that evolved and improved as the game progressed. The positive outcome of this experience led CCG1 to recommend a variation on the A2C2 architecture for the Global Wargame itself. This presented the A2C2 team with an unprecedented opportunity to follow a model-based architecture from the laboratory to the field. Although Global '99 was not an experiment in the classical sense, the exercise did manipulate three central components of NCW: model-driven innovations in organizational design, new C2 processes to match changes in command organization, and the availability of advanced information technologies and collaboration tools. This paper describes Global Wargame `99 from the A2C2 perspective, including the methods they used there to capture data and the lessons they learned from the experience., Presented at the Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (CCRTS) held at the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA on 26-28 Jun 2000.

This paper describes a concept for a tool (the SAGE: Sophisticated Automatic policy-Generation Executor) that will provide semi-automatic development and implementation of information policy to assist military commanders in meeting their operational requirements. The concepts presented here address the problem of deriving organizational information management policies from mission concepts and provide a mechanism for commanders and their staffs to articulate information policies appropriate to their roles and echelons within the organization. It is suggested that generation of these information policies can be facilitated by a web-based wizard. This wizard (the SAGE) would assist the commander and staff in completing task templates relevant to mission concepts and plans, and then derive information policy elements for review and execution. The tool would retrieve and fill out existing task templates to the degree feasible and query users only to the point that gaps in task templates need to be filled. The tool would also monitor for changes in operational circumstance to trigger adaptation of supporting information management policies. A generic example of the method and a conceptual case study approach are provided. Additional applications of the concept to support information assurance activities, e.g., intrusion detection and response, are also explored., The original document contains color images.

This paper presents a method for designing the physical layout of a command center to best support team performance, based on the communication and information structure of the team. The command center design method is based on an optimized team design model that produces the best team structure for a specific mission. Using information about the team's communication patterns and information needs, we apply model-based principles to evaluate candidate designs for the physical layout of the command center and to develop designs best suited to the team structure., The original document contains color images.

We produced a command and control coaching model. and wrote a mission needs statement for AWACS. We also created a storyboard description of INTACT. We successfully demonstrated a prototype INTACT supporting real time operator performance during a DDD simulation.