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Pesticides are becoming a significant transnational pollutant in agricultural production environments. This review presents the interconnectedness and interaction effects of pesticides with the microbiomes in the environments of plant rhizosphere and animal (limited to insect and human) guts. The metabolic growth and functions of rhizosphere microbiomes are altered by complex mechanisms involving redox reactions and preferential substrate utilization. The rhizospheres of crop plants with the assemblies of microbiota and other biotic components are sensitive to the deliberate introduction of pesticides. Pesticides become one of the major drivers for the metabolic processes, which rely on the evolutionary mechanisms, including the genetic exchange events within the rhizosphere microbiomes. Pesticides, even at the below detection levels, in the rhizosphere enable the plant uptake which can be up to 1% of the dose applied and trophic transfers involving the animal gut environments. To overcome the metabolic constraints due to the nutrient-poor plant diets contaminated with pesticides, insects gain the resistance traits, mainly due to the pesticide-degrading members of the gut microbiomes. Such evolved microbiome members and their genes can increase their spread of resistance in the environment. Like the insect gut microbiomes, the human gut microbiomes get modulated by the pesticide-laden plant foods, leading to dysbiosis. The confounding effects of pesticides on the gut microbiomes which include mutational and genetic exchange events can upsurge many health disorders. The evolutionary and microbiome perspectives on the rhizosphere and animal guts as the hotspots of metabolic and horizontal gene transfer (HGT) events need careful considerations to mitigate the risks and health hazards due to extensive and intensive application of synthetic chemical pesticides in the modern agriculture.

Reversible phenotypic changes, such as those observed in nutritional organs of long-distance migrants, increasingly receive the attention of ornithologists. In this paper we review the cost-benefit studies that have been performed on the flexible gizzard of Red Knots Calidris cunutus. By varying the hardness of the diet on offer gizzard mass could experimentally be manipulated, which allowed quantification of the energetic costs and benefits as a function of gizzard size. These functions were used to construct an optimality model of gizzard mass for Red Knots on migration and during winter. Two possible currencies were assumed, one in which Knots aim to balance their energy budget on a daily basis (satisficers), and one in which Knots aim to maximise their daily energy budget (net rate maximisers). The model accurately predicted variation in gizzard mass that we observed (1) between years, (2) within years, and (3) between sites. Knots maintained satisficing gizzards during winter and rate-maximising gizzards when fuelling for migration. The model-exercise revealed the importance of digestive constraints and quality of prey in the life of Knots.

Reversible phenotypic changes, such as those observed in nutritional organs of long-distance migrants, increasingly receive the attention of ornithologists. In this paper we review the cost-benefit studies that have been performed on the flexible gizzard of Red Knots Calidris cunutus. By varying the hardness of the diet on offer gizzard mass could experimentally be manipulated, which allowed quantification of the energetic costs and benefits as a function of gizzard size. These functions were used to construct an optimality model of gizzard mass for Red Knots on migration and during winter. Two possible currencies were assumed, one in which Knots aim to balance their energy budget on a daily basis (satisficers), and one in which Knots aim to maximise their daily energy budget (net rate maximisers). The model accurately predicted variation in gizzard mass that we observed (1) between years, (2) within years, and (3) between sites. Knots maintained satisficing gizzards during winter and rate-maximising gizzards when fuelling for migration. The model-exercise revealed the importance of digestive constraints and quality of prey in the life of Knots.

Background Recent work suggests that mixing in the small intestine takes place in central luminal and peripheral compartments. However, while movements of villi have been described, the mechanisms by which peripheral mixing are engendered remain unclear. Methods We examined the disposition and movement of mucosa and associated villi during contractions of the everted terminal ileum of the brushtail possum. We then simulated the effect of these movements on peripheral mixing. Key Results Compression of the intestinal mucosa by phasic longitudinal or radial contractions created short-lived microfolds, which were of similar scale to the attached villi. The packing density of the villous tips increased in the concavities and decreased on the crests of these microfolds. Simulations showed that these caused liquid digesta to be expelled from, or drawn into, intervillous spaces, significantly augmenting peripheral, but not bulk, luminal mixing. Conclusions & Inferences We describe a mechanism by which peripheral mixing may be engendered by mucosal microfolds without requiring the coordinated contraction of individual villi or groups of villi.