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Local chicken populations belonging to five villages in two geographically separated provinces of Sri Lanka were analyzed using 20 microsatellite markers to determine the genetic diversity of local chickens. Population genetic parameters were estimated separately for five populations based on geographic locations and for eight populations based on phenotypes, such as naked neck, long legged, crested or crown, frizzle feathered, Giriraj, commercial layer, crossbreds, and non-descript chicken. The analysis revealed that there was a high genetic diversity among local chickens with high number of unique alleles, mean number of alleles per locus (MNA), and total number of alleles per locus per population. A total of 185 microsatellite alleles were detected in 192 samples, indicating a high allelic diversity. The MNA ranged from 8.10 (non-descript village chicken) to 3.50 (Giriraj) among phenotypes and from 7.30 (Tabbowa) to 6.50 (Labunoruwa) among village populations. In phenotypic groups, positive inbreeding coefficient (FIS) values indicated the existence of population substructure with evidence of inbreeding. In commercial layers, a high expected heterozygosity He = 0.640 ± 0.042) and a negative FIS were observed. The positive FIS and high He estimates observed in village populations were due to the heterogeneity of samples, owing to free mating facilitated by communal feeding patterns. Highly admixed nature of phenotypes was explained as a result of rearing many phenotypes by households (58%) and interactions of chickens among neighboring households (53%). A weak substructure was evident due to the mating system, which disregarded the phenotypes. Based on genetic distances, crown chickens had the highest distance to other phenotypes, while the highest similarity was observed between non-descript village chickens and naked neck birds. The finding confirms the genetic wealth conserved within the populations as a result of the breeding system commonly practiced by chicken owners. Thus, the existing local chicken populations should be considered as a harbor of gene pool, which can be readily utilized in developing locally adapted and improved chicken breeds in the future.

Traditional livestock husbandry is of great socio-economic importance for farmers and pastoral populations in Burkina Faso in general and in particular, those in the Southwestern region. The aim of our study is to inventory medicinal plants in cattle husbandry in the Poni province. Methodology consisted of semi-structured interviews; individual conversations with local specialists in the use of local plants. A total of 120 informants were interviewed (60 specialists, 60 non-specialist farmers) across three sites (Bouroum–Bouroum, Loropeni and Kampti) where a community based cattle breeding program has taken place. The results showed that 26 medicinal plants for veterinary use, distributed across 23 genera and 15 families were well known. In total, 9 important cattle diseases for which medicinal plants are used have been recorded. The most frequent diseases reported were foot and mouth disease (22%) and animal trypanosomosis (21%). Among the six (06) modes of preparation recorded for disease treatment, decoction was the most used (62%). Statistical analyses revealed a significant difference between men and women (p = 0.002) with medicinal plant knowledge. Men know more medicinal plants than women do. The results have indicated a disparity of medicinal plant knowledge according to age classes. The results also revealed a significant difference (p = 0.028) of plants recognised by seven ethnic groups. Knowledge of different medicinal plants for veterinary use among the ethnic groups was influenced by the family income source and the main activity. The informant consensus factor (0.5) showed that all the informants agreed on the importance of medicinal plant conservation. Promoting the veterinary use of the plants recorded in this study could be a key to their conservation.

Highlights • This study evaluates the effect of heat stress on milk production and describes the pattern of response of milk yield to increasing heat load, in small holder dairy farms in sub-Saharan Africa. • Milk yield showed a W-shaped pattern of response across the THI scale. • Cows experienced heat stress in the THI window between THI values of 67 and 76. • Milk loss plateaued beyond THI value of 76 suggesting that the animals acclimatized to the heat stress conditions despite the initial heat load shock., This study evaluates the effect of heat stress on milk production and describes the pattern of response of milk yield to increasing heat load, using temperature-humidity index (THI) on test-day milk records of small holder dairy cattle herds in the sub-Saharan African climate of Tanzania. Climate data obtained from aWhere, an agricultural weather data platform (http://www.awhere.com) was analysed with 14,367 first lactation test day milk records of 3511 dairy cows collected between 2016 and 2019. THI was calculated from daily maximal temperatures and daily minimum humidity. Three sets of analysis were performed. In the first and second analysis, two mixed effect repeatability models were fitted with THI treated as a categorical variable grouped into 5 classes (THI1= [61 - 66], THI2= [67 - 71], THI3= [72 - 78], THI4=[79 - 81], THI5=[82 - 86]), to obtain least squares estimates of THI effect on milk production, and as a continuous variable within THI classes to identify THI thresholds at which milk yield started to decline. In the third analyses, one quadratic polynomial regression (POL) and three regression spline functions namely piecewise linear spline function (PLF), natural splines function (NSF) and cubic splines function (CSF) were fitted to determine the average effect of THI on milk yield in the population and describe the pattern of response of milk yield to increasing head load. The results show that heat stress reduced milk yield by 4.16% to 14.42% across THI groups, with daily milk yield being the highest in THI1 (7.40±0.39 litres) and the lowest in THI4 (6.33±0.32). Regression coefficients within groups showed significant daily milk yield decrease in THI2 (-0.09) and THI3 (-0.06), but not for other THI classes, indicating that cows experienced heat stress between THI values of 67 and 76 and milk loss plateaued afterwards, suggesting that the animals acclimatized to heat stress conditions beyond THI value of 76. At the population level, THI and its squared term were significantly negatively and positively (-0.61, 0.004) associated with milk production, indicating a non-linear relationship between milk yield and THI. The CSF model showed better goodness of fit and predictive ability than other models for predicting future population response of milk yield to heat stress in small holder dairy farms in Tanzania. Herd management strategies and animal husbandry measures are needed in small holder dairy farms in Tanzania to minimize the impact of heat stress on milk yield and income of the farmers.

Understanding the genetic structure of adaptation and productivity in challenging environments is necessary for designing breeding programs that suit such conditions. Crossbred dairy cattle in East Africa resulting from over 60 years of crossing exotic dairy breeds with indigenous cattle plus inter se matings form a highly variable admixed population. This population has been subject to natural selection in response to environmental stresses, such as harsh climate, low-quality feeds, poor management, and strong disease challenge. Here, we combine two complementary sets of analyses, genome-wide association (GWA) and signatures of selection (SoS), to identify genomic regions that contribute to variation in milk yield and/or contribute to adaptation in admixed dairy cattle of Kenya. Our GWA separates SNP effects due to ancestral origin of alleles from effects due to within-population linkage disequilibrium. The results indicate that many genomic regions contributed to the high milk production potential of modern dairy breeds with no region having an exceptional effect. For SoS, we used two haplotype-based tests to compare haplotype length variation within admixed and between admixed and East African Shorthorn Zebu cattle populations. The integrated haplotype score (iHS) analysis identified 16 candidate regions for positive selection in the admixed cattle while the between population Rsb test detected 24 divergently selected regions in the admixed cattle compared to East African Shorthorn Zebu. We compare the results from GWA and SoS in an attempt to validate the most significant SoS results. Only four candidate regions for SoS intersect with GWA regions using a low stringency test. The identified SoS candidate regions harbored genes in several enriched annotation clusters and overlapped with previously found QTLs and associations for different traits in cattle. If validated, the GWA and SoS results indicate potential for SNP-based genomic selection for genetic improvement of smallholder crossbred cattle.

The Red Maasai are indigenous sheep breeds known for their adaptability in arid and semi-arid environments while the Dorper is known for its good mutton production. A field experiment cross breeding program for the two breeds was set up in 2003 to exploit these traits. In this paper, we present the genetic parameters for birth weight (BWT), weaning weight (WWT) and weight at nine months (MWT) for pure Red Maasai (RRRR), pure Dorper (DDDD), 75% Dorper (DDDR) and 50% Dorper (DDRR) breeds. The genetic parameters were estimated by fitting four different multivariate animal models while ignoring or including maternal effects. The model with the lowest Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) was chosen as the best model for the estimation of genetic parameters. The average annual genetic gain of the studied traits for each breed group was estimated by regressing the estimated breeding values on year of birth. Records from 5442 lambs recorded over a period of 17 years (2003-2019) were used in this analysis. The breed group, sex, type of birth, season of birth and age of the dam significantly (P

A meta-analysis of 84 published reports on goats was conducted to calculate weighted and unweighted average direct heritability (ha2), maternal genetic effect (hm2), common environmental effect (c2), repeatability (R), genetic (rg) and phenotypic (rp) correlations for growth, reproduction and milk production traits. Weighted average ha2, hm2, and c2 for growth traits ranged from 0.03 to 0.45, 0.05 to 0.27, and 0.02 to 0.10, respectively. Weighted average ha2 for reproduction and milk production traits ranged from 0.00 to 0.17 and 0.15 to 0.22, respectively. Weighted R for the growth, reproduction, and milk production traits ranged from 0.06 to 0.56, 0.06 to 0.13, and 0.50 to 0.61, respectively. Weighted averages of rp and rg among growth traits ranged from −0.06 to 0.84 and 0.01 to 0.98, respectively. Weighted average rp among milk production traits ranged from 0.18 to 0.94. In most cases average ha2 and rg had higher observed standard deviations compared to the theoretical standard error. The present finding revealed that weighted average ha2, hm2, c2, R, and rg are more reliable for two reasons: estimates of ha2 for some growth traits were more conservative than values from relatively higher number of records and the absence of significant effects of the tested fixed factors on some parameter estimates. However, studies on genetic parameter estimations are required for growth, reproduction, and milk traits in goats.

SummaryDevelopment of the livestock industry and its role in poverty alleviation in developing countries depends on how adaptive the production systems are to changing global environmental and economic trends. This paper characterizes dairy production systems in India, Tanzania, Kenya and Nicaragua, and describes the genetic and breeding technologies that hold promise for the advancement of global development goals. The dairy value chain has been prioritized for development under the CGIAR research programme on Livestock and Fish in Tanzania (East Africa), India (South Asia) and Nicaragua (Latin America), while ILRI is involved in research on dairy development in Kenya. In all the countries, a large number of smallholder farmers operating mixed crop–livestock production systems play a significant role in dairy production. In Tanzania, Kenya and Nicaragua, milk is predominantly produced by cattle of genotypes that differ both across countries and among production systems within the same country. In India, buffaloes contribute to a larger proportion of the national milk than cattle. Information on productivity per animal and on optimal genotypes to utilize within the smallholder production systems of all the countries is however limited. Crossbreeding and artificial insemination were identified as the most widely utilized breeding and reproductive technologies. Only in Kenya is there a national organization conducting livestock recording and monitoring productivity, however, the proportion of the dairy cattle population enrolled in the recording system is small (

espanolEl programa de investigacion del CGIAR sobre Cambio Climatico, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria, desarrollado en colaboracion con varios socios, esta evaluando una serie de intervenciones para hacer frente a la amenaza de condiciones climaticas cambiantes sobre comunidades de pequenos ganaderos residentes junto a llanuras aluviales de rios, agrupadas bajo el nombre de “Aldeas Climaticamente Inteligentes” (ACI). Presentamos las caracteristicas de las granjas de las ACI en relacion a la produccion de los pequenos rumiantes y el contexto para un programa de seleccion y mejora. La informacion se obtuvo mediante la participacion en el proceso de investigacion de 140 hogares de 7 ACI en la cuenca del rio Nyando, en Kenya. Si bien la mayoria de los hogares eran liderados por hombres, se dio una mayor proporcion de mujeres adultas dentro de las comunidades. Los niveles de alfabetizacion fueron moderados. El 58 por ciento de la poblacion poseia menos de una hectarea de tierra para cultivar y para criar, de media, 6.96 ± 3.35 Unidades de Ganado Tropical, entre las cuales se incluian diferentes especies de animales. En los hogares dirigidos por mujeres, predominaban las ovejas, las cuales resultaban principalmente de cruces entre razas locales inespecificas, frente a las cabras, que eran mayoritariamente del tipo racial Cabra Pequena de Africa Oriental. Los apareamientos de los pequenos rumiantes se realizaban de manera aleatoria, sin ningun control de la endogamia, dado que los rebanos se mezclaban en los pastos y en los puntos de agua. Los ganaderos deseaban tener animales grandes y resistentes para poder beneficiarse de mejores precios de mercado. Sin embargo, las velocidades de crecimiento fueron bajas. Los rebanos de pequenos rumiantes eran dinamicos, con un 31 por ciento de los animales entrando y saliendo de los rebanos cada ano. Se podria implementar en las ACI un programa de mejora comunitario que emplease de manera optima los recursos disponibles y que incorporase la cuestion del genero en las tecnologias innovadoras. Este programa deberia acompanarse de un refuerzo de las capacidades para el desarrollo de la ganaderia, la mejora del estado sanitario y la comercializacion de los productos. Palabras clave: pequenos rumiantes, aldeas climaticamente inteligentes, practicas de manejo EnglishThe CGIAR research programme on Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security, in collaboration with several partners is testing a portfolio of interventions to address the threat of changing climatic conditions for smallholder farming communities living beside river flood plains, grouped into “Climate Smart Villages” (CSVs). We present characteristics of farms in CSV in relation to small ruminant (SR) production and the scenario for a breeding and improvement programme. Information was collated using participatory systems research methods from 140 households in seven CSVs in Nyando basin, Kenya. Although most households were headed by men, there were a higher proportion of adult women within the communities, and literacy levels were moderate. A total of 58 percent of the population owned Keywords: climate smart villages, management practices, small ruminants francaisLe programme de recherche du CGIAR sur le Changement Climatique, l’Agriculture et la Securite Alimentaire, developpe en collaboration avec divers partenaires, a evalue une serie d’interventions pour s’attaquer a la menace de conditions climatiques changeantes pesant sur les communautes de petits eleveurs habitant pres de plaines alluviales fluviales, groupees sous le nom de “Villages Intelligents face au Climat” (VIC). Nous presentons les caracteristiques des exploitations des VIC par rapport aux performances des petits ruminants et le contexte pour un programme de selection et d’amelioration. Les informations ont ete obtenues en impliquant 140 menages de 7 VIC du bassin du fleuve Nyando, au Kenya, dans le processus de recherche. Bien que la plupart des menages etaient diriges par des hommes, la proportion de femmes adultes dans les communautes a ete plus elevee. Les niveaux d’alphabetisation ont ete moderes. Le 58 pour cent de la population possedait moins d’un hectare de terre pour les cultures et pour elever, en moyenne, 6.96 ± 3.35 Unites de Betail Tropical de differentes especes d’animaux. Dans les menages diriges par des femmes, il y avait plus de moutons, resultant essentiellement du croisement de races locales non specifiques, que de chevres, celles-ci etant principalement du type racial Petite Chevre d’Afrique de l’Est. Les accouplements des petits ruminants se faisaient de facon aleatoire, sans aucun controle de la consanguinite, puisque les troupeaux se melangeaient dans les pâturages et aux points d’eau. Les eleveurs souhaitaient avoir des animaux grands et resistants pour pouvoir beneficier de meilleurs prix sur le marche. Cependant, les vitesses de croissance ont ete basses. Les troupeaux de petits ruminants ont ete dynamiques, avec un 31 pour cent des animaux entrant et quittant les troupeaux chaque annee. Un programme communautaire de selection employant les ressources disponibles de facon optimale et integrant le sujet du genre dans les technologies innovantes pourrait etre mis en œuvre dans les VIC. Ce programme devrait s’accompagner d’un renforcement des capacites pour le developpement de l’elevage, l’amelioration de l’etat sanitaire et la commercialisation des produits. Mots-cles: petits ruminants, villages intelligents face au climat, pratiques d’elevage

Performance of three generation (G0,G1 and G2)of indigenous chicken was evaluated to assess the effect of breeding strategies on the productivity. Data on age at sexual maturity (ASM), body weight at sexual maturity (BWM), body weight at one year of age (BWY), eggs per clutch (EGC), clutches per year (CLY), hatchability on set eggs basis (HAT) and survivability of baby chicks up to sexual maturity (SUR) were collected from a total of 1392 birds reared in four rural villages under traditional scavenging system during December 2010 to June 2013. The birds belong to three generations (G0, G1 and G2) and are from three breeding strategies (BS1 use of only pure and superior indigenous mature cocks, BS2 use of pure and superior indigenous mature cocks and mature hens and BS3 use of existing or random indigenous cocks and hens). In G2, the lowest ASM of male birds (156.56±3.39 days) was observed and the highest in BS2, whereas in BS3 high BWM and BWY of male (1200.00±19.99; 1779.63±27.20 gm) and female (994.48±10.86; 1350.38±14.46 gm) birds were observed in BS2. However, in G2 the highest EGC (14.97±0.20), CLY (4.53±0.05) and HAT (89.79±0.96%) were observed in BS1 but the highest SUR (51.15±2.36%) was documented in BS3. Present study revealed that use of superior Indigenous mature cocks alone and exercising cock rotation program can help to increase egg production, hatchability and decrease ASM of female birds of progressive generations in rural low input system. On the other hand, use of both superior Indigenous mature cocks and hens at a time at farmers end and exercising cock rotation program can help to improve body weight in rural low input system.Tropical Agricultural Research Vol. 26 (3): 517 – 527 (2015)

Survival analysis applying proportional hazards models was used to investigate genetic and non-genetic factors affecting ewe longevity and lamb survival of sheep in Ethiopia. Data were obtained from an on-station closed nucleus breeding program of Menz sheep and an on-farm Awassi×Menz sheep crossbreeding project. A total of 695 ewes and 1890 lambs born from the nucleus population of Menz sheep were used for the analysis of ewe productive life and lamb survival to yearling age respectively. In addition, 5530 lamb records of purebred local and crossbreds with proportions of ~25–50% Awassi, collected from three locations were used for the analysis of lamb survival from birth to weaning age. The effects of year, ewe parity and litter weight at weaning were significant (p

The aim of the current simulation study was to maximize the amount (kg) of high value meat arising from surplus males and females per kilogram of the goat population and, maximize weight gains to turnoff age. Subsequently, the study aimed to decrease turnoff age, maximization of reproduction rates and minimization of the mature weight of does in the low-input livestock production system in Kenya. Three crossbreeding systems and a synthetic breed development were evaluated, namely; (a) straight breeding system that utilized pure Small East African goat (SEAG) where parental lines were maintained to generate the desired terminal crosses, (b) three-breed crossbreeding system that utilized SEAG as pure breed, Galla goat (GG) as the first cross sire breed, and Improved Boer goat (IBG) as the terminal sire, (c) two-breed rotational crossbreeding system where the SEAG and IBG were purebreds, and (d) synthetic breed development system utilizing SEAG × IBG. The HotCross crossbreeding simulation software was used to assess the predicted performance of the different goat breed crosses under conditions of agro ecological zones (AEZ) V and VI. A model was developed to compare these crossbreeding systems, and showed the optimum numbers required in each stage of a cross to maximize production. In the AEZ V, it was found that the three-breed terminal system gave 18.2 kg (76%) improvement over straightbreds per doe mated per year. The multi-breed composite realized 20.4 kg (86%) improvement over pure SEAG. In the AEZ VI, it was found that the three-breed terminal system gave 10 kg (64%) improvement over straightbreds per doe mated per year. The multi-breed composite realized 14.6 kg (94%) improvement straightbreds per doe mated per year. The two-breed rotation was worse than the multi-breed composite in both environments. This implies that in low-input livestock production system, a multi-breed composite may be the crossbreeding system of choice, so long as supportive infrastructure is put in place.

The Global Plan of Action (GPA) for Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) adopted by FAO recognizes the role of AnGR for food security through improved productivity while maintaining genetic diversity. A critical issue for conservation and genetic improvement programmes is the availability of supportive infrastructure. The objective of the present study was to assess existing and needed infrastructure for sustainable use of AnGR in a sample of countries in Southern and Eastern Africa. Information was primarily obtained from semi-structured interviews with key personnel in animal breeding during country visits. Countries studied are at different stages of development. No complete breeding programmes are in place but some conservation programmes exist in most countries. Except for a few cases, livestock recording as basis for R&D and breeding practice is lacking. The institutional setup to support animal breeding programmes is fragmented and needs to be better integrated. Shortage of skilled personnel is noted as the most serious constraint for development. Countries with least university training in animal breeding have least developed AnGR activities. However, since the GPA was agreed upon, many countries have re-casted their policies and make efforts to develop breeding policies. A change in mindsets aiming at closer collaboration among institutions, farmer involvement and capacity development and strengthening at all levels is suggested.

Data on morphometrics and performance of 106 Black Bengal goats were collected through an in-depth monitoring survey conducted in 73 families of Gangatia, Borachala and Pachpai villages of Bhaluka Upazila, Mymensingh, Bangladesh using a structured questionnaire. Analyses of variance were performed using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure under Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0. Differences between mean values were separated using Duncun’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Body weight of goats significantly (p0.05) differ with age classes, villages and body condition. The number of services needed for each conception of Solid Black, Toggenburg pattern and Brown Bezoar goats were 1.32±0.31, 1.08±0.22, 1.25±0.31, 1.01±0.26 and 1.23±0.27, respectively. The lowest kidding interval was observed in Borachala village (169.80±38.11 days) and in Solid Black goats (176.71±36.17 days). The highest litter size was found in does (1.68±0.39) of Gangatia village (1.67±0.51) and in Solid Black goats (1.67±0.54). The lowest abortion rate was found in Solid Black goats (6.14%). The lowest kid mortality was observed in Solid Black goats (10.00%). Variation observed in morphometric and production traits of indigenous Black Bengal goats indicated an opportunity for their improvement through an in-situ pure breeding program.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjas.v41i2.14122 Bang. J. Anim. Sci. 2012. 41 (2): 83-89

It is estimated that 14% of the livestock in Eastern Africa are comprised of 146 million goats. The goats are in varying agroecological zones under farming systems ranging from small-scale mixed crop–livestock systems with a few animals raised on limited land resources, to extensive pastoral systems where large numbers of animals are raised on large tracts of land. The goats are raised primarily for meat, with milk treated as a secondary trait. Use of goat products at rural household levels in the region is not well documented. The goat populations have been developed over time through selection processes resulting in diverse goat breeds, with some adapted to harsh environmental conditions. In recent years, a strong drive to increase the productivity of goats has resulted in changes in breeding and management strategies and practices, including introduction of foreign breeds, mainly from temperate environments for use in crossbreeding programs, and a narrowing of the range and diversity of indigenous breed types. This, in addition to a lack of detailed information on the characteristics of the indigenous breeds, threatens the existing diversity of goat populations. This chapter presents an overview of the present-day indigenous goat breeds and the production systems under which they are raised in Eastern Africa. The chapter also highlights key constraints to improving goat productivity and outlines opportunities and changes to mitigate threats within the farming systems. The growing populations of goats and their potential for improving the livelihood of different communities call for innovative strategies to reduce their environmental footprint in the existing ecosystems.

Meat production is the most important trait in the breeding objectives of sheep production in East Africa. The aim of this study was to investigate breed differences in live weight, conformation, carcass traits and economic values for meat production among Red Maasai and Dorper sheep and their crosses. In total, 88 ram lambs, which were reared at the ILRI experimental station, Kapiti plains Estate in Central Kenya, were used for the study. The lambs were slaughtered at Kenya Meat Commission (KMC) at about 1 year of age. Prior to slaughter, the lambs were weighed, measured and assessed by experienced evaluators, and at the abattoir carcass traits were recorded. Large breed differences were found for most traits. Dorper lambs were heavier at delivery for slaughter and had better carcass grade but lower dressing percentage and fat levels than Red Maasai. Crossbreds were generally better than the parental breeds. Evaluators were willing to pay more for the Dorper lambs for slaughter although carcass weights later were shown not to be higher than for Red Maasai. Evaluators undervalued Red Maasai lambs by 8–13 % compared to Dorper lambs according to the prices quoted per kilogramme live or carcass weight by KMC. Live weight was better than any other live measure in predicting carcass weight. Due to the overall higher ranking of the crossbred lambs for meat production, Dorper may be useful as a terminal sire breed for crossing with Red Maasai ewes.

The Bahima ethnic group have been crossbreeding autochthonous Ankole with Holstein-Friesian cattle. Separate herds (pure Ankole and crossbreds) are common. A survey was conducted to characterize pasture utilization and management in the Ankole region to gain a better understanding of current and emerging practices. Herds are largely grazed by continuous stocking although there are efforts to establish paddocks. Factors considered for pasture allocation to cattle genotypes were high-quality feed, limited shrubs/weeds and close proximity to homestead for 80, 80 and 30% of farmers, respectively. Cross-bred cattle were kept on medium/high-quality, and Ankole cattle on medium/low-quality pastures. Pastures for cross-bred cattle yielded 0·17 t ha−1 more dry matter than pastures allocated to Ankole cattle. Crude protein (CP) content of Ankole pasture was significantly (P

Developing countries from the southern hemisphere have similarities in terms of climatic and agricultural conditions and cattle are the most important livestock species in these countries — which leads to many areas of similar interest and opportunities regarding beef cattle production. The increase in demand for meat in developing countries offers large market opportunities for livestock producers. If the productivity of beef farmers can be improved to commercial levels, it may have the potential to address poverty in these agriculturally based economies. Climate change is predicted to be highly dynamic and can have adverse effects on crop and livestock productivity. The cattle breed to be used and the production strategy to be followed in developing countries of the southern hemisphere will depend primarily on the environment and level of management. The availability of diverse cattle breed resources with adaptive and productive differences will allow breed types to be matched to different environments, management capabilities and markets. In the harsh and undeveloped areas or pastoralist systems, pure breeding with e.g. Sanga, Zebu or naturalized breeds may be the only production strategy that can be followed. In the more developed areas, crossbreeding with small indigenous cows may succeed in improving the output of beef cattle farming. It is believed that crossbreeding will gain importance in many developing counties in the southern hemisphere. It is therefore essential that crossbreeding studies be conducted where necessary, to supply information regarding heterosis and for the development of multi-breed genetic evaluations, breeding objectives and decision making. By describing production environments it may be possible to identify genotypes that are adapted to a specific environment. However, tools are needed to overlay geo-referenced data sets onto the different environments. Statistical science continues to support animal breeding and improvement, especially with respect to production traits. Traits linked to fertility and/or survival are still problematic and the appropriate quantitative breeding technology to properly handle these traits still needs to be developed. Gene or marker assisted selection may play an important role in selection for disease and parasite resistance or tolerance, since it is generally difficult to measure these traits directly. Strategies that utilize EBVs derived from genomic analyses (genomic EBVs), together with conventional mixed model methodology, may speed up the process of breeding animals with subsequent higher and more efficient production. The application of a landscape genetics approach offers the potential to greatly enhance the knowledge of how landscape heterogeneity influences the genetic population structure, gene flow, and adaptation. Results from these studies can be used to address questions related to species management and conservation.

Summary Based on the results of participatory approaches to define traits in the breeding objectives, four scenarios of ram selection and ram use were compared via deterministic modelling of breeding plans for community-based sheep breeding programmes in four diverse agro-ecological regions of Ethiopia. The regions (and production systems) were Afar (pastoral/agro-pastoral), Bonga and Horro (both mixed crop-livestock) and Menz (sheep-barley). The schemes or scenarios differed in terms of selection intensity and duration of ram use. The predicted genetic gains per year in yearling weight (kilograms) were comparable across the schemes but differed among the breeds and ranged from 0.399 to 0.440 in Afar, 0.813 to 0.894 in Bonga, 0.850 to 0.940 in Horro, and 0.616 to 0.699 in Menz. The genetic gains per year in number of lambs born per ewe bred ranged from 0.009 to 0.010 in both Bonga and Horro. The predicted genetic gain in the proportion of lambs weaned per ewe joined was nearly comparable in all breeds ranging from 0.008 to 0.011. The genetic gain per year in milk yield of Afar breed was in the order of 0.018 to 0.020 kg, while the genetic gain per generation for greasy fleece weight (kg) ranged from 0.016 to 0.024 in Menz. Generally, strong selection and shorter duration of ram use for breeding were the preferred options. The expected genetic gains are satisfactory but largely rely on accurate and continuous pedigree and performance recording.

In the Ankole pastoral production system animals are grazed on pasture all year round. The cattle are not supplemented with conserved pasture or commercial feed except minerals. The large number of factors that influence production makes it impractical and expensive to use field trials to explore all the farm system options. A model of a pastoral production system was developed to provide a tool for developing and testing the system; for example, drying off animals early and supplement them for quick return on heat, testing the economic and ecological viability of the different stocking rates. The model links climate information, on a monthly basis, with dynamic, stochastic component-models for pasture growth and animal production, as well as management policies. Some of the component models were developed and published by other authors but are modified to suit the Ankole pastoral conditions. The model outputs were compared with on-farm data collected over 3 years and data collected for other on-farm studies in the region. The relative prediction error (RPE) values for body weight after weaning across both breeds ranged from 3% to 12% which is below the acceptable 20% and means that the model predicts post weaning growth with an average error of 7.5%. The model predicted pasture production and milk yield across seasons with relative prediction errors of 17.6% and 3.33%, respectively. The graph shapes of actual and predicted average daily milk yield as influenced by season (month of the year) were similar. Because pasture growth and milk production predictions were acceptable, economic predictions can be made using the model to test different management options such as seasonal breeding, alterations in lactation length and determination of appropriate off-takes and evaluation of economic viability of various stocking rates.

La caracterizacion fenotipica tiene una importancia fundamental en la mejora y conservacion de razas. Se han estudiado 248 explotaciones en Uganda para determinar el rendimiento y las caracteristicas morfologicas del ganado Ankole en tres sistemas de produccion (LPS, por sus siglas en ingles) de Uganda. Se han medido en 120 toros y 180 vacas la alzada a la cruz (HW, por sus siglas en ingles), perimetro toracico (HW, por sus siglas en ingles), diametro longitudinal (BL, por sus siglas en ingles), longitud de la oreja (EL, por sus siglas en ingles), longitud del cuerno (HL, por sus siglas en ingles), distancia entre las puntas de los cuernos (HS, por sus siglas en ingles) y el peso corporal (BW, por sus siglas en ingles). Los datos han sido analizados utilizando LPS (pastos para el ganado, agropastoral, pastoral), el condado (Gomba, Kazo, Kiboga, Mawoggola, Nyabushozi) y el sexo (hembras y machos) como factores principales. En los resultados, la edad de madurez sexual (ASM, por sus siglas en ingles) fue de 23.6 ± 0.5 meses para los toros y de 22.7 ± 0.5 para las vacas. La edad para el primer parto (AFC, por sus siglas en ingles) fue de 33.2 ± 0.5 meses, mientras que el intervalo entre partos (CI, por sus siglas en ingles) fue de 12.9 ± 0.8 meses. La duracion de la lactacion (LL, por sus siglas en ingles) difirio entre LPS (5.5 ± 0.4, 6.3 ± 0.3 y 7.4 ± 0.2 meses en agropastoral, pastos para el ganado y pastoral, respectivamente). La produccion media de leche fue de 2.2 ± 0.1 kg/vaca mientras que la supervivencia antes del destete fue de 90.0 ± 6.5%. El sexo y LPS influyo significativamente en HW, HL y HS. Se observaron correlaciones positivas entre BW y HG, BL y HL. Los coeficientes de correlacion fueron mucho mas bajos en las hembras que en los machos, excepto en BW vs HG y BW vs HW. Los resultados muestran grandes variaciones entre rendimiento y morfologia, sugiriendo que dentro del plan de seleccion racial y/o de gestion puede conllevar mejora sustancial en el campo de la productividad.

Para facilitar la mejora del ganado en los paises en desarrollo, son importantes tanto los registros de las poblaciones animales como de sus diferentes niveles de productividad. Sin embargo, en estos paises, el registro del ganado presenta un enorme desafio. Este trabajo presenta un resumen de la evolucion historica y el escenario actual en los registros relativos al ganado bovino de produccion carnica y lechera en Kenia, donde un sistema de registro esta en marcha desde 1963, a pesar de que el potencial productivo de la mayoria de los animales de dicho pais sigue siendo desconocido. El trabajo pone en contexto la situacion del registro animal relacionado con el potencial para su desarrollo futuro, tanto en produccion lechera como carnica dentro del pais. A pesar del enorme potencial existente, tan solo un bajo numero de registros animales han sido tomados, debido a la enorme cantidad de desafios existentes, los cuales incluyen los limitados fondos, la falta de incentivos para registrar, escasa retroalimentacion de los registros, una fragmentada estructura organizativa, una deficiente infraestructura, poco personal calificado, y la falta de politicas de apoyo. Se estan debatiendo estrategias para superar todas las dificultades existentes y lograr una utilizacion sostenible de las poblaciones de ganado existentes. El hecho de vincular los registros con las personas que proporcionan una serie de servicios basicos podria mejorar la recopilacion de datos, su procesamiento y que, a su vez, existiera una retroalimentacion de informacion hacia los productores de ganado. La calidad de los servicios de extension proporcionados se debe mejorar con objeto de apoyar de forma integral la produccion animal. Las recientes regulaciones internacionales sobre la trazabilidad de productos de origen animal vendidos en diferentes paises hacen pensar que, a menos que Kenia ponga en marcha un solido programa de registro animal, el pais sera excluido de los mercados en lo relativo a sus pr

Successful livestock improvement programmes focusing on low-input smallholder production systems though rare, are possible using community-based approaches. This paper outlines important design and implementation components of a goat improvement programme undertaken by FARM Africa in the eastern highlands of Kenya. Through strong capacity building initiatives at grass-roots level, producers were empowered to undertake a goat genetic improvement programme that benefitted them in several ways. This resulted in the farmers forming their own umbrella organizations to cater for their interests as producers in accessing animal health and breeding services, production inputs, and marketing goats and goat products. In seven years, the population of improved goats in one of the project areas increased from 2100 to 5500, and the livelihoods of the participating farmers improved. Income from sales of milk and improved breeding and slaughter stock increased, while food security improved as a result of daily milk consumption and improved crop yields resulting from use of the rich goat manure. The project has, however, faced challenges arising mainly from the popularity of the improved goats within the Eastern Africa region, which has resulted in sale of a large number of the young animals, leaving few replacements within the project area. Uptake of goat breeding by private commercial farmers to provide breeding stock and replacement animals is currently lacking. Further research and evaluation is required on how to strengthen collective-action based institutions to improve services within smallholder farmer communities.

Livestock provide a wide variety of goods and services that generate income and support the livelihoods of millions of poor people in the developing world. Natural and human selections have shaped existing livestock genotypes throughout the estimated 12,000 year history since the first animal domestication. The result, in many production systems in the developing world, is a livestock genotype adapted to its environment and capable of meeting the needs of smallholder farmers. However, this adaptation is unlikely to be optimal and the rapid changes currently affecting the livestock sector, including policy and market changes, movements of germplasm frequently involving the importation of exotic breeds, and the increasing impacts of climate change are affecting the livestock genotype-environment optimum. This is challenging livestock production systems of smallholder farmers. Current challenges include: high rates of loss of the diversity in livestock populations, rapid transformation in smallholder production systems requiring significant changes in genotypes and their management; increased demand for quality and safe foods; increased market competition in a globalizing economy; increased need for complex partnership arrangements in the ever-changing livestock commodity chain; and lack of adaptive capacity to respond to the rapid system changes. Underlying all these is the general lack of strategies for genetic improvement of livestock in smallholder systems and poor livestock infrastructure in developing countries. Opportunities include increased demand for livestock products — and hence potential market opportunities, and new technologies with potential to leap-frog breeding progress in developing countries. This paper analyses options for pro-poor livestock improvement in developing countries, with particular emphasis on the potential role that science – both old and new – will have, from understanding the social underpinnings to innovative technical solutions. It concludes that one of the highest priority interventions for the smallholder systems is the development of innovative approaches for the strategic use of appropriate genotypes from the available range of global breed resources. The analysis strongly suggests that the highest priority ‘breeding intervention’ should be the provision of appropriate genotypes in a sustainable manner, underpinned by a good understanding of what breed resources exist that have demonstrated potential, where else they could be used, and how they would be delivered to smallholders. Efforts to improve/refine breeding skills of smallholders should proceed in parallel. Institutional arrangements and enabling policies are critical for the success in identifying and applying appropriate genetic technologies, improving access to input services and facilitating access to markets in order to translate productivity gains into incomes.

A total of 304 individuals from eight Ankole cattle populations of Uganda were analysed based on 19 microsatellite markers to investigate genetic diversity, relationships and population structure. Across all loci, 200 alleles were observed. A high mean number of alleles (MNA) per locus, ranging from 5.89 to 6.79 per population, was observed. Polymorphic information content (PIC) ranged from 0.403 (ILSTS013) to 0.817 (ILSTS036), with an overall mean over all loci of 0.688. The average observed heterozygosity (Ho) was highest in Kaibanda (0.727) and lowest in Kituuha (0.648), while the expected heterozygosity (He) ranged from 0.722 (Nshaara) to 0.664 (Kituuha), though for all populations the differences were not significant. Significant deviations from Hardy–Weinberg proportions were observed over eight loci, however, all 152 loci–population combination tests were in equilibrium after Bonferroni correction. FST estimates for all loci and between all populations were highly significant (P

This review summarizes available information on genetics of adaptation in major livestock species focusing on small ruminants. Adaptation to humans and consequences of domestication on predator aversion, mechanisms of adaptation to available feed and water resources, severe climates and genetic evidence of disease tolerance or resistance have been presented. The latter focuses on gastrointestinal parasites and bacterial diseases. The resource allocation by the animal to production and fitness traits under both optimal and sub-optimal conditions has a genetic background. Such information would help in identifying the most appropriate and adapted genotypes capable of coping with the environmental challenges posed by the production systems or, wherever possible, in adapting the environments to the requirements of the animals.

The use of exotic dairy goats in breeding programmes for smallholder production systems is popular in Eastern Africa. However, information on the performance of exotic breeds within these systems is scarce. This paper presents information on performance of Toggenburg dairy goats under smallholder production systems in a medium to high agricultural potential environment in Kenya under a community-based set-up as part of the characterization of its adaptive and productive attributes. Environmental factors affecting growth of 646 goats born in the environment, and fertility and milk production of 160 does from 1997 to 2005 were evaluated. Genetic parameters were also estimated for early growth traits. The average birth weight (BW) for 607 kids was 3.27 kg. Corrected weaning weights (CW), and average daily gain to weaning (ADG) for 646 kids were 19.12 kg and 136 g/day, respectively. The results indicated that the smallholder farmers were able to maintain comparably high levels of milk production in the first three parities (LMY), with yields of 475 ± 9 l in 201 days for 160 does in the first parity, 507 ± 9 l in 264 days from 130 does in the second parity and 513 ± 13 l in 296 days for 82 does in the third parity. Kidding intervals though initially long decreased with time to reasonable levels (302 ± 117 days). The heritability estimates obtained were low (0.23 ± 0.13 for BW, 0.18 ± 0.11 for CW and 0.14 ± 0.11 for ADG). Genetic correlations between the traits were also low. Genetic and phenotypic trends indicated little change in BW, CW and LMY over the years. The phenotypic trend in the kidding interval showed a reducing interval over time. The results demonstrated that the Toggenburg goats were able to perform and thrive reasonably well under the low-input farming conditions.

The use of imported semen within the Holstein-Friesian cattle population in Kenya has contributed to increased milk production per cow, however, information on how this has impacted on functional traits, particularly early life survival and reproductive performance is scarce. This study evaluated age at first calving (AFC), survival to age at first calving, and survival to four years of age using survival analyses techniques, in Holstein-Friesian cattle on four dairy farms in Kenya. The heritability estimate obtained for AFC was 0.15 +/- 0.06 for an average AFC of 1058 days. Animals sired by New Zealand and Australian born bulls had the earliest average AFC (907 days). On average, 25% of all the heifers born were culled prior to attaining a first calving, while 34% were culled prior to four years of age. Though the highest proportion of losses was due to unspecified reasons, the relative risk of being culled was highest when an animal had a specific disease, and the first 60 days of life were the most critical for survival. Daughters of sires from South-Africa and Israel tended to have better survival rates than those sired by bulls originating from other regions. Unfavourable selection towards animals sired by Kenyan born bulls was evident. The economic implications of the high rate of early mortality need to be evaluated in order to assist livestock producers make informed decisions on choice of sires for breeding.

Ankole cattle are well known for their massive white horns and red coat colour. These characteristics are attributed to centuries of cultural breeding practices. Two experiments with traditional cattle keepers were carried out at a governmental Ankole nucleus farm in south-western Uganda to identify phenotypic characteristics as well as production and fitness traits which are important indigenous selection criteria. Forty one body measurements each were taken from 15 bulls and 35 cows and phenotypic characteristics were described in detail. In the first experiment 12 groups of 6 to 8 cattle keepers were invited to rank several groups of 4–5 animals according to their preference for a breeding bull or cow based on phenotype alone. In the second experiment the ranking was based on phenotype and a hypothetical life history that was randomly assigned to each animal on each day of experiment. The history included milk yield (on own performance for cows and that of the dam for bulls), fertility of the animal and its sire as well as events of East Coast Fever. For analysis, Generalized Multinomial Logit Models were fitted. To compare different models the likelihood-based pseudo R square measure was used. The results indicate that, in the selection of cows, performance and fitness traits are emphasized by the cattle keepers while in the selection of bulls, the phenotypic appearance of the animal plays an important role. Individual fertility followed by milk performance are the main criteria for selecting cows, resistance to East Coast Fever was of highest importance in bulls. In both sexes a dark red coat colour was highly rated. The study indicates that the methodology of preference ranking combining phenotype and a hypothetical life history may provide insight into indigenous selection criteria of stock owners elsewhere.

Body linear measurements, and specifically heart girth (HG), have been shown to be useful predictors of cattle liveweight. To test the accuracy of body linear measurements for predicting liveweight, crossbred dairy cattle of different genotypes were measured and weighed. A total of 352 mature cows and 100 heifers were weighed using an electronic weighing scale and measurements of HG, body length, height at withers were taken using an ordinary measuring tape and body condition scored (BCS) using a five-point scale. The animals were grouped according to genotype and age. Genotype classification was undertaken from farmer recall and by visual appraisal as 40-60, 61-80 or 81-100 % exotic (non-indigenous). Age classification was simply as mature cows or heifers. Liveweight of the animals ranged from 102 to 433 kg. Liveweight was strongly correlated with HG (r = 0.84) and body condition scores (r = 0.70) and moderately correlated with body length (r = 0.64) and height at withers (0.61). Regressing LW on HG measurements gave statistically significant (P 0.01) equations with R(2) ranging from of 0.53 to 0.78 and residual standard deviation ranging from 18.11 to 40.50 kg. The overall model developed (adjusted R(2) = 0.71) had a prediction error of 26 kg (or 11 % of the mean) and predicted LW of over 95 % of crossbred dairy cattle in the range of 100-450 kg, regardless of age and breed group. Including BCS in the model slightly improved the model fit but not the prediction error. It was concluded that the model can be useful in making general management decisions in smallholder farms.

Breeding objectives always involve consideration of multiple traits, even in situations where output of a single trait is dominant. We review literature dealing with formal definition of breeding objectives. Involvement of farmers in the process of setting up breeding objectives is also considered. In the optimal selection index, the relative importance of a trait is scaled by its economic value, derived as marginal profit related to a change in expression of defined size. Normative approaches to derive economic values use partial derivatives of a profit equation with respect to the traits involved or model the bio-economic system with various techniques. The theory is well developed and includes consideration of non-linear profit functions and traits with an intermediate optimum. It is frequently applied in animal breeding. In dairy cattle breeding, a major change of focus from traits related to output (i.e., milk yield) to traits related to cost of input (health, fertility, feed efficiency) has taken place recently. Plant breeders find the concept of deriving relative economic weights of traits difficult to apply and often replace the optimal index by restricted or desired gains indices. A change of paradigms similar to that in cattle breeding seems advisable. Participatory approaches to evaluate the relative importance of traits are more frequently applied in plant breeding than in animal breeding. We review two studies, dealing with methods of acquiring information about selection criteria of farmers planting maize in the Ethiopian highlands and of pastoralists keeping cattle in Uganda, in detail.

Small ruminants (i.e., sheep and goats) are ubiquitous, and contribute significantly to the subsistence, economic and social livelihoods of a large human population in low-input, smallholder production systems in developing countries. Increasing human population, urbanization and incomes, coupled with changing consumer preferences are creating more demand for these animals and their products. This demand can effectively be met by substantially increasing the productivity of these animals. Integrated effort in terms of management, health, genetic improvement and product technology to enhance production and decrease wastage is, therefore, desirable. Efficient genetic improvement programs can boost output and profitability for the smallholders. However, there is a lack of information on sustainable conventional genetic improvement programs under smallholder production circumstances. Consequently, methods for implementing and the factors influencing the success of genetic improvement programs should be studied. This review focuses on the technical and infrastructural issues affecting the genetic improvement of small ruminants in low-input, smallholder production systems. It is concluded that a key step is to identify existing structures, institutions, and indigenous breeding practices, and, to build upon these foundation programs where there are opportunities for sustainable genetic improvement.

A survey in Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda was conducted in order to determine the different production systems under which Ankole cattle are currently kept. Additionally, selection criteria of livestock keepers were documented. In Burundi, Rwanda and parts of Uganda, livestock keepers are sedentary and herds are small, whereas in the other areas Ankole cattle are kept in large herds, some of them still under a (semi-)nomadic system. Milk is the main product in all areas, and is partly for home consumption and partly for sale. Although the production systems vary in many aspects, the selection criteria for cows are similar. Productive traits such as milk yield, fertility and body size were ranked highly. For bulls, the trait 'growth' was ranked highly in all study areas. Phenotypic features (coat colour, horn shape and size) and ancestral information are more important in bulls than in cows. The only adaptive trait mentioned by livestock keepers was disease resistance. In areas of land scarcity (Burundi, Rwanda, western Uganda), a clear trend from pure Ankole cattle towards cross-bred animals can be observed.

Dairy goat development in Kenya started in the mid 1950s, with the introduction of exotic dairy goat breeds. Major projects to improve the dairy goat sector were not realized until the late 1970s under United Nations Development Programmes (UNDP) funded and FAO executed projects, which lasted until the mid 1980s. The initial projects were mainly government station-based, and aimed at multiplying improved stock for distribution to farmers. Due to several technical, logistical and financial constraints the station-based projects failed to meet their objectives, and by 1996, despite huge financial investments in this endeavour, only a total of approximately 40,000 improved goats were available in Kenya. The farmers were not directly involved and genotype-by-environment interaction issues were not duly taken into account in designing and executing the projects. In early to mid 1990s, the German Development Corporation (GTZ) and FARM Africa initiated new approaches that were community-based and farmer-led in two regions of Kenya. Genetic improvement activities were now based on-farm, as opposed to government stations. Farmers and farmer-group members were rigorously trained on breeding programme designs and management, husbandry, including primary healthcare and were facilitated to run their show with frontline technical support from the NGO's and government officers. In just 7 years, the dairy goat population has risen to more than 90,000 head, hence doubled over the 7-year period. In addition, the improved goat technology is alive with many NGOs replicating the new approach. The community participation in the crucial areas of service provision, animal health delivery, marketing and quality control has strongly influenced this development. The challenges, successes and other experiences of these two Kenyan projects are presented and illustrated by way of a case study as to how simple participatory approaches can actually lead to significant improvement in the livelihoods of the rural resource poor families.

Sheep are an important source of meat in Kenya. However, there are different sheep types raised in different agro-ecological zones and their genetic status is unknown. This study was designed to establish this. Using samples of blood from 391 fat-tailed sheep from five districts in Kenya, variation/similarities in their blood proteins, namely albumin, transferrin, esterase-A, esterase-C and haemoglobin was studied. Protein of Merino sheep was also used as a reference. Transferrin, esterase-A and esterase-C were polymorphic in all the populations investigated, while albumin was monomorphic for the S allele in all the fat-tailed sheep, and haemoglobin was fixed for the B allele in Kwale, Makueni and Siaya populations but was variable in Kakamega, Kajiado and Merino populations. The degree of within and between populations genetic diversity and variability was low with Kajiado population, being on average the most diverse among the indigenous sheep. The genetic distance and phylogenetic tree analysis indicated close genetic relationships among the fat-tailed sheep, which were clearly distinguished from the Merino.

This paper reports the variation in five blood proteins from five populations of sheep found in Kenya. Blood samples were collected from a total of 309 adult sheep of both sexes in Kwale, Makueni and Kakamega districts for the fat-tailed sheep and in Isiolo district for the fat-rumped hair sheep. Fine-wooled Merino sheep were used in this study as the reference population. Transferrin, esterase-A and esterase-C were polymorphic in all the populations investigated, while albumin was monomorphic for the S allele in the fat-tailed sheep and haemoglobin was fixed for the B allele in the Kwale, Makueni and Isiolo populations. Phylogenies derived from the pairwise genetic distance estimates showed a clear separation between the indigenous sheep populations and the exotic Merino. However, the topology of the former showed rather poor consistency with their morphological classification based on the localization of their fat deposits, namely fat-tailed or fat-rumped hair sheep.

The objective of this study was to assess the effect of place of birth on the reproductive performance of two Nguni ecotypes (Nguni and Landim) raised in a sub-tropical environment to enhance strategies for livestock development and restocking programmes within the southern African region. Reproduction data collected between 1994 and 2009 from 301 cows of the Landim (n = 122) and Nguni (n = 179) ecotypes were analysed. Results indicated that ecotype and place of birth had significant effects on age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval (CI). The means for AFC were 1085 and 1003 days, those for CI were 422 and 436 days, while the calving rate (CR) was 90.0% and 85.7% for the Nguni and Landim, respectively. This study demonstrates for the first time a possible genotype by environment interaction between Nguni ecotypes. This might aid future cattle development and restocking programmes in southern Africa, taking into consideration the adaptation of indigenous genotypes and climate change. Keywords : Age at first calving, calving interval, ecotypes, Landim, environment

Identification of breeding objective traits pertinent to specific production environments with the involvement of target beneficiaries is crucial to the success of a breed improvement program. A choice experiment was conducted in four locations representing different production systems and agro-ecologies that are habitat to four indigenous sheep breeds (Afar, Bonga, Horro and Menz) of Ethiopia with the objective of identifying farmers’/pastoralists’ preferences for sheep breeding traits. Following a synthesis of secondary information and diagnostic surveys, two communities per location consisting of 60 households each having at least four breeding ewes were identified. Producers’ priority attributes used in the choice sets were identified through in-depth production system studies conducted from December 2007 to March 2008. On the basis of prior information, four to seven attributes were used to design choice sets with different profiles in order to capture results that mimic real life of the different communities. The attributes and levels chosen for the sheep profile were as follows: body size (large/small), coat color (brown/white/black), tail type (good/bad) for both rams and ewes; horn (polled/horned) and libido (active/poor) for rams; and lambing interval (three lambings in 2 years/two lambings in 2 years time), mothering ability (good mother/bad mother), twinning rate (twin bearer/single bearer) and milk yield (two cups per milking/one cup per milking) for ewes. A fractional factorial design was implemented to construct the alternatives included in the choice sets. The design resulted in a randomized selection of 48 sheep profiles (24 sets) for both sexes, which were grouped into four blocks with six choice sets each. An individual respondent was presented with one of the four blocks to make his/her choices. Results indicate that producers’ trait preferences were heterogeneous except for body size in rams and mothering ability in ewes where nearly homogeneous preferences were investigated. In the pastoral production system, attention was given to coat color of both breeding rams and ewes, favoring brown and white colors over black. Ram libido influenced producers’ decisions in Bonga, Horro and Menz areas. The influence of milk yield and twinning on respondents’ decision making was high in Afar and Horro, respectively. Breeders in all areas attempt to combine production and reproduction traits as well as they can in order to maximize benefits from their sheep. The elicited measurable objective traits were used to design alternative community-based sheep breeding plans for the four indigenous sheep breeds in their production environments that have been implemented since.

Data on 680 heifers, 1894 calving and 1014 calves of Kenya Boran cattle, covering periods between 11 and 23 years, were used to assess the influence of coat colour and factors such as year and month of birth, sex, parity, most previous parous status and cow coat colour on age at first calving (AFC), calving interval (CI), calving rate (CR), stillbirth rates (STBR), abortion rates (ABR) and weaning rates (WR), 270-day adjusted calf weight (Calf 270) and two cow productivity indices. This paper focuses on the relevance and effects of cow coat colour on reproductive and productive performance of the cows. Cow coat colour had no significant influence on CI,ABR,WR, Calf270 and the cow productivity indices, but significantly affected (p< 0.05) STBR and AFC. Mottled and darker coloured cows were 1.8 months younger at first calving; weaned 3 % more calves; had 2.4% higher calving rate; 2.3% lower stillbirth rates and on overall 30.6 kg/cow/year more productive, although insignificantly so largely due to large standard errors, than the more popular light coloured (white/grey) cows. Golden coloured cows weaned calves that were 4 kg heavier than the white/grey ones and were therefore more productive than the white, grey and brown cows, but only marginally so. It was concluded from the study that the effect of coat colour on the performance of Kenya Boran cows in insignificant and should, therefore not be emphasized in genetic improvement of the breed. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 28 2005: pp. 37-40

A total of 1599 dairy records comprised of 710 calving interval and number of services per conception, and 179 age at first calving records were used to evaluate the performance of dairy cow kept at the University of Nairobi farm, Kanyariri, from 1989 to 2001. The data were analysed using fixed models with breed, year, season, parity and lactational length. the least squares means for the calving interval, number of services per conception and age at first calving were 452+22.4 days, 1.56+0.12, and 36.2+0.51months ,444.5+ 29.3 days, 1.7+0.19 and 33.4+1.5months and 465+31.1 days,1.67+0.20, and 33.6+1.4 months for Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey and Jersey, respectively. Year of calving had significant effect on calving interval and number of services per conception, while year of birth and breed significantly affected age at first calving. The phenotypic trends for the traits studied showed undesirable trends, but their respective regressions on year were not significant. The results indicate breed differences in age at first calving and indicate the need to investigate the casual components of the phenotype. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 27 2004: pp. 106-108

Data on 871 calving and lactation records of Dutch Friesian cows in their second parity and above kept at the National Animal Research Centre, Naivasha were analyzed to investigate the effects of year and season of calving , parity, actual age at calving within parity and degree of calving ease 305 –a day (305 DMY) and lactation length (LL). The records were made over a period of 12 years, from 1971 to 1987. Effects of year season of birth, calving, parity and degree of calving ease were highly significant (p< 0.001). Of the two traits (p< 0.001). Age within parity was highly significant for 305-day milk yield only. An inverse relationship between type of calving and milk yield was observed, in which 305 day milk yield decreased substantially with increase in level of difficult calving. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 21 2001: pp. 37-42

Assessment of genetic diversity is a prerequisite for the management and conservation of animal genetic resources. Appropriate design of breeding programmes is therefore impossible for breeds that have not been adequately characterized either phenotypically and/or genetically. Phenotypic characteristics are important in breed identification and classification in ways that farming communities can relate with. This study phenotypically characterized two breeds of zebu cattle in Kenya. A total of 12 measurements (face length, ear length, horn length, heart girth, height at withers, chest depth, body length, height at rump, pelvis width, corpus length, pin bone width and tail length) were collected on 373 Maasai and 277 Kamba zebu kept by traditional farmers in south-east Kenya. The data were classified on the basis of breed group, age group, sex and coat colour pattern. Breed group, age group and sex significantly influenced all measurements. Coat colour pattern significantly influenced only height at withers, corpus length, ear length and tail length. Except for horn and ear length, all the other measurements were significantly higher for the Maasai zebu. Additionally, the Maasai zebu was taller than it was long. The opposite was true for the Kamba zebu. The Maasai and Kamba zebus can be classified as medium-sized breeds; however, great variations exist in their body sizes within and between the breeds.

Technology transfer may be defined as the conveyance of either a man-made tangible or intangible know-how from those who posses it to those who do not. Although the technology transfer encompasses great a many different types of activities, the transfer process can be examined according to six major elements, namely, the transfer item, the technology donor, the technology recipient, the transfer mechanism, the rate of diffusion of technology and the absorptive capacity of the recipient. These are several ways in which technology can be transferred from donor to recipient. Some of these mechanisms include turnkey operations, the technological enclave, licensing, joint ventures, patents, in house transfers to foreign subsidiaries, simple emulation of a product or a process, direct purchase of naked technology, embodied technology/technological services, education abroad, site-visits and on training, international co-operative research efforts, meetings and seminars. Scientists from the developing world are involved at various levels in the process of technology transfer. In the process of participating in all these activities the innovative process may come into play. Medical “technology” implies understanding of the equipment and paraphernalia of medicine and the art and skill in using it. The International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) and Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) Kenya Trypanosomiasis Institute (KETRI) amongst others have notably participated in the development of Bio-Medical technology at various levels. Contributions of various African Scientists in the development of techniques and methods of treatment and control of various diseases is outstanding and has been of great assistance to drug companies for the development of products. The output of Research and Development must be considered productive and may lead to development of new technologies or improvement of existing ones. Industries are the beneficiaries here as they produce products that are sold to final users. The patenting of such products or know-how should reflect the participation of third world Scientists. High level of technological awareness must therefore be created among researchers and scientists of the third world. A system that protects intellectual property rights that works must be created. Joint cooperative research projects between the third world scientists and scientist of the developed world should lead to the beginning of a breakthrough in the technological underdevelopment of these countries towards the year 2000 and beyond. While conferences, intensive seminars and workshops are to be encouraged even more, work well done must not end up in shelves as papers presented in high scientific conferences. Key words: Technology transfer, the innovative process, transfers item, technology donor, technology recipient, and technology diffusions Resume On peut definir le transfert de technologies comme une transmission du genie humain materiel ou immateriel des personnes erudites aux gens qui sont depourvus de ce genie. Bien que le transfert de technologies englobe plusieurs types d'activites, le processus lui-meme de transfert peut etre vu sous six angles principaux. Ces activites portent sur l'element a transferer, le taux de vulgarisation de la technologie et la capacite d'adoption par le beneficiaire. Il existe plusieurs facons dont la technologie peut etre transmise de l'innovateur au client. Certains de ces mecanismes incluent notamment les operations essentielles, dont le caractere collectif de la technologie, la licence, le partage des risques, les brevets, le transfert des biens immobiliers aux filiales etrangeres, la simple promotion du produit ou le precede de sa fabrication, l'achat direct d'une technologie brute ou majoree des services qu'elle genere, les etudes a l'etranger, les visites sur terrain et la formation continue, les efforts de cooperation internationale en matiere de recherche, de meme que les reunions et les conferences. Les scientifiques des pays en voie de developpement sont, a differents niveaux, impliques dans le processus de transfert de technologies. Au cours de l'execution des activites dessus mentionnes, il peut y avoir l'un ou l'autre element d'innovation qui intervient dans le jeu. La technologie biomedicale implique la maitrise du fonctionnement de l'equipement et de tout le bataclan medical, de meme que le tact dans leur utilisation. Entre autres, le laboratoire International pour la Recherche sur les Maladies des Animaux — ILRAD, l'Institut Kenyan de Recherche sur la Trypanosomiase — KETRI et l'Institut Kenyan de Recherche Medicale — KEMRI, ont notamment participe a la mise au point de la technologie biomedicale a divers niveaux. La contribution apportee par divers scientifiques africains au developpement des techniques et methodes de traitement et de lutte contre differentes maladies est notoire, et celle-ci a considerablement aide les compagnies pharmaceutiques dans la mise au point de leurs produits. Les fruits de la recherche et developpement doivent etre consideres comme rentables et pouvant deboucher au developpement de nouvelles technologies ou conduire a l'amelioration de celles qui existent. Les industries en sont les premiers beneficiaires car elles fabriquent des produits qui sont directement vendus aux utilisateurs finaux. Les brevets pour de tels produits ou ceux pour leur procede de fabrication devraient refleter la participation des scientifiques des pays en voie de developpement. Le niveau eleve de conscience technologique devrait ainsi etre eveille chez les chercheurs et scientifiques du tiers monde. Un systeme fonctionnel protegeant les droits de propriete intellectuelle doit voir le jour. Les projets conjoints de recherche englobant des scientifiques du tiers monde et ceux des pays developpes devraient faire une percee dans le sous-developpement technologique de ces pays vers l'annee 2000 et au-dela. Certes la tenue des conferences, des seminaires intensifs et ateliers doit etre fortement encouragee, mais les travaux bien effectues par les chercheurs ne doivent pas s'evanouir dans des tiroirs et etre simplement consideres comme des papiers presentes dans de grandes conferences scientifiques. Mots cles: transfert de technologies, processus innovateur, article de transfert, innovateur de la technologie, client beneficiaire de la technologie, diffusion de technologies (Discovery and Innovation: 2002 14 (3-4): 155-160)

Indigenous sheep of Kenya are very important to resource-poor farmers and pastoralists. They have over time adapted to the harsh environmental conditions of the arid and semi-arid lands where they are faced with challenges of persistent droughts, diseases, conflicts and poor nutrition, yet show resistance to gastrointestinal nematodes. In recent years, these indigenous sheep populations have been crossbred indiscriminately to exotic breeds particularly the Dorper. A study was undertaken to determine the level of genetic diversity and relatedness between the various sheep populations and breeds of Kenya. This paper reports results on the genetic diversity and admixture observed using microsatellite DNA markers.