Search

Identifying genetically different groups of animals, occupying specific geographical areas, is a prerequisite for conservation and management priorities. In the present study, the genetic structure of Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) occupying the Pechora Sea (PEC) in the western Russian Arctic, including walruses from Svalbard-Franz Josef Land (SVA-FJL) and East Greenland (EGR) regions, was investigated using 14 microsatellites (N = 159) and mtDNA sequences (N = 212). Bayesian-based clustering analysis identified two clusters: EGR and the other Northeast Atlantic areas. Pairwise F-ST analyses based on microsatellites revealed low but significant genetic differences between walruses from the PEC and SVA-FJL groups, which was supported by mtDNA analysis. F-ST was not significant for all sampling years, indicating a temporal effect or male-biased gene flow. Extended Bayesian Skyline Plots suggested a constant female subpopulation size (N-ef) for EGR and an increase for the SVA-FJL and PEC groups that commenced around 40-30 Kyr ago, indicating different demographic histories for walruses in the EGR. Further, the evolutionary phylogenetic relationship between Atlantic and Pacific walruses (O. r. divergence), based on mtDNA sequences, showed a monophyletic Atlantic clade, suggesting that Atlantic and Pacific walruses diverged similar to 949 Kyr. The principal finding suggests that PEC walruses show low, but significant genetic distinction from walruses in SVA-FJL and should be managed conservatively, as a separate, small population.

Human-mediated secondary contact of recently diverged taxa offers valuable opportunities for studying the evolutionary mechanisms involved in the establishment and maintenance of genetic boundaries between taxa. We used mitochondrial and microsatellite markers to examine a recently introduced population of the spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca) of mixed origin in the Doñana National Park (SW Spain). The earliest records of tortoises in Doñana trace back to the 18th century, but several population reinforcements in the 20th century with animals from Morocco are well-documented. Consequently, different genetic lineages, which represent distinct subspecies, are thought to co-exist there. Our results confirmed the presence of distinct lineages by revealing that tortoises of the subspecies T. g. marokkensis were introduced into a local allochthonous T. g. graeca population. Unexpectedly, T. g. marokkensis haplotypes exclusively appeared in males, and admixture levels were statistically sex-biased toward males. The sex ratio of the population deviated from parity, with males being 2.36-fold more abundant than females. Our results indicated that population reinforcements had a strong effect on the genetic composition of this population and aggravated its sex ratio deviation. We predict that this sex-biased pattern of introgression is ephemeral and advocated to the near loss of T. g. marokkensis haplotypes.

A central paradigm in conservation biology is that population bottlenecks reduce genetic diversity and population viability. In an era of biodiversity loss and climate change, understanding the determinants and consequences of bottlenecks is therefore an important challenge. However, as most studies focus on single species, the multitude of potential drivers and the consequences of bottlenecks remain elusive. Here, we combined genetic data from over 11,000 individuals of 30 pinniped species with demographic, ecological and life history data to evaluate the consequences of commercial exploitation by 18th and 19th century sealers. We show that around one third of these species exhibit strong signatures of recent population declines. Bottleneck strength is associated with breeding habitat and mating system variation, and together with global abundance explains much of the variation in genetic diversity across species. Overall, bottleneck intensity is unrelated to IUCN status, although the three most heavily bottlenecked species are endangered. Our study reveals an unforeseen interplay between human exploitation, animal biology, demographic declines and genetic diversity., Historical hunting has caused documented declines in pinnipeds, but the extent to which hunting caused genetic bottlenecks among species was unknown. Here, the authors show evidence of severe bottlenecks in several pinniped species, particularly those that breed on land.

Discerning the relative roles of adaptive and non-adaptive processes in generating differences among populations and species, as well as how these processes interact, are fundamental aims in biology. Both genetic and phenotypic divergence across populations can be the product of limited dispersal and gradual genetic drift across populations (isolation by distance), of colonisation history and founder effects (isolation by colonisation) or of adaptation to different environments preventing migration between populations (isolation by adaptation). Here we attempt to differentiate between these processes using island populations of Berthelot's pipit (Anthus berthelotii), a passerine bird endemic to three Atlantic archipelagos. Using microsatellite markers and approximate Bayesian computation, we reveal that the northwards colonisation of this species ca 8,500 years ago resulted in genetic bottlenecks in the colonised archipelagos. We then show that high levels of genetic structure exist across archipelagos, and that these are consistent with a pattern of isolation by colonisation, but not with isolation by distance or adaptation. Finally, we show that substantial morphological divergence also exists and that this is strongly concordant with patterns of genetic structure and bottleneck history, but not with environmental differences or geographic distance. Overall our data suggest that founder effects are responsible for both genetic and phenotypic changes across archipelagos. Our findings provide a rare example of how founder effects can persist over evolutionary timescales, and suggest that they may play an important role in the early stages of speciation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Background Population genetic diversity and structure are determined by past and current evolutionary processes, among which spatially limited dispersal, genetic drift, and shifts in species distribution boundaries have major effects. In most wildlife species, environmental modifications by humans often lead to contraction of species’ ranges and/or limit their dispersal by acting as environmental barriers. However, in species well adapted to anthropogenic habitat or open landscapes, human induced environmental changes may facilitate dispersal and range expansions. In this study, we analysed whether isolation by distance and deforestation, among other environmental features, promotes or restricts dispersal and expansion in stone marten (Martes foina) populations. Results We genotyped 298 martens from eight sites at twenty-two microsatellite loci to characterize the genetic variability, population structure and demographic history of stone martens in Poland. At the landscape scale, limited genetic differentiation between sites in a mosaic of urban, rural and forest habitats was mostly influenced by isolation by distance. Statistical clustering and multivariate analyses showed weak genetic structuring with two to four clusters and a high rate of gene flow between them. Stronger genetic differentiation was detected for one stone marten population (NE1) located inside a large forest complex. Genetic differentiation between this site and all others was 20% higher than between other sites separated by similar distances. The genetic uniqueness index of NE1 was also twofold higher than in other sites. Past demographic history analyses showed recent expansion of this species in north-eastern Poland. A decrease in genetic diversity from south to north, and MIGRAINE analyses indicated the direction of expansion of stone marten. Conclusions Our results showed that two processes, changes in species distribution boundaries and limited dispersal associated with landscape barriers, affect genetic diversity and structure in stone marten. Analysis of local barriers that reduced dispersal and large scale analyses of genetic structure and demographic history highlight the importance of isolation by distance and forest cover for the past colonization of central Europe by stone marten. This confirmed the hypothesis that human-landscape changes (deforestation) accelerated stone marten expansion, to which climate warming probably has also been contributing over the last few decades. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12898-017-0156-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Host–parasite systems provide convincing examples of Red Queen co-evolutionary dynamics.Yet, a key process underscored in Van Valen's theory – that arms race dynamics can result in extinction – has never been documented.One reason for this may be that most sampling designs lack the breadth needed to illuminate the rapid pace of adaptation by pathogen populations. In this study, we used a 25-year temporal sampling to decipher the demographic history of a plant pathogen: the poplar rust fungus, Melampsora larici-populina. A major adaptive event occurred in 1994 with the breakdown of R7 resistance carried by several poplar cultivars widely planted in Western Europe since 1982.The corresponding virulence rapidly spread in M. larici-populina populations and nearly reached fixation in northern France, even on susceptible hosts. Using both temporal records of virulence profiles and temporal population genetic data, our analyses revealed that (i) R7 resistance breakdown resulted in the emergence of a unique and homogeneous genetic group, the so-called cultivated population, which predominated in northern France for about 20 years, (ii) selection for Vir7 individuals brought with it multiple other virulence types via hitchhiking, resulting in an overall increase in the population-wide number of virulence types and (iii) – above all – the emergence of the cultivated population superseded the initial population which predominated at the same place before R7 resistance breakdown.Our temporal analysis illustrates how antagonistic co-evolution can lead to population extinction and replacement, hence providing direct evidence for the escalation process which is at the core of Red Queen dynamics.

Silver kob (Argyrosomus inodorus) is a sciaenid fish that has been targeted for more than 150 years by commercial and recreational fisheries in the coastal waters of Namibia and South Africa, where four main stocks have been hypothesised. In the present study, recently developed molecular markers were utilized to evaluate levels of genetic diversity and population structuring among such stocks. Moderate levels of genetic diversity and signatures of bottlenecking were found in the South African stocks (South Western Cape, Southern Cape and South Eastern Cape). Significant population genetic differentiation was detected between Namibia and South Africa, but not among the three putative South African stocks, indicating that the main oceanographic barrier for silver kob populations is to be found in the cool-temperate Benguela region, corroborating recent genetic studies. The lack of genetic structuring in South African waters indicates strong gene flow among the 3 South African putative stocks, which are characterized by distinct age and growth patterns. Thus, in order to guarantee a successful recovery of silver kob stocks, genetic findings should be used in conjunction with life-history and behavioral data to tailor future management measures aimed at mitigating the effects of different fisheries throughout the species’ distribution range.

Estimating the patterns of connectivity in marine taxa with planktonic dispersive stages is a challenging but crucial task because of its conservation implications. The red gorgonian Paramuricea clavata is a habitat forming species, characterized by short larval dispersal and high reproductive output, but low recruitment. In the recent past, the species was impacted by mass mortality events caused by increased water temperatures in summer. In the present study, we used 9 microsatellites to investigate the genetic structure and connectivity in the highly threatened populations from the Ligurian Sea (NW Mediterranean). No evidence for a recent bottleneck neither decreased genetic diversity in sites impacted by mass mortality events were found. Significant IBD pattern and high global F-ST confirmed low larval dispersal capability in the red gorgonian. The maximum dispersal distance was estimated at 20-60 km. Larval exchange between sites separated by hundreds of meters and between different depths was detected at each site, supporting the hypothesis that deeper subpopulations unaffected by surface warming peaks may provide larvae for shallower ones, enabling recovery after climatically induced mortality events. Erasmus Mundus Marine Ecosystem Health and Conservation (MARES) doctoral program; Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia (FCT) under the COMPETE program - European Regional Development Fund [PTDC/BIA-BIC/114526/2009]

The identification of population bottlenecks is critical in conservation because populations that have experienced significant reductions in abundance are subject to a variety of genetic and demographic processes that can hasten extinction. Genetic bottleneck tests constitute an appealing and popular approach for determining if a population decline has occurred because they only require sampling at a single point in time, yet reflect demographic history over multiple generations. However, a review of the published literature indicates that, as typically applied, microsatellite-based bottleneck tests often do not detect bottlenecks in vertebrate populations known to have experienced declines. This observation was supported by simulations that revealed that bottleneck tests can have limited statistical power to detect bottlenecks largely as a result of limited sample sizes typically used in published studies. Moreover, commonly assumed values for mutation model parameters do not appear to encompass variation in microsatellite evolution observed in vertebrates and, on average, the proportion of multi-step mutations is underestimated by a factor of approximately two. As a result, bottleneck tests can have a higher probability of detecting bottlenecks in stable populations than expected based on the nominal significance level. We provide recommendations that could add rigor to inferences drawn from future bottleneck tests and highlight new directions for the characterization of demographic history.

The analysis of stranding events and the application of molecular markers can be powerful tools to study cryptic biological aspects of delphinid species that occur mainly in open ocean habitat. In the present study, we investigated nuclear and mitochondrial genetic variability of Atlantic white-sided dolphins that stranded from 1990 to 2006 (n = 42) along the west coast of Ireland, using 8 microsatellite loci and 599 bp of the mitochondrial DNA control region. Results from both classes of markers are concordant with the hypothesis of a large random-mating population of white-sided dolphins along the west coast of Ireland. In addition, the analyses of 2 live mass stranding events (19 and 5 individuals, respectively) revealed that dolphins within each group were mainly unrelated to each other, suggesting dispersal of both sexes from the natal group (i.e., no natal phylopatry). Parentage analyses allowed the identification of mother-offspring pairs but ruled out all adult males as possible fathers. In combination with data on age of individuals, these results confirmed previous knowledge on life-history parameters, with sexually mature females ranging between 11 and 15 years of age and an interbirth interval of at least 2 years. The present study provides novel information on population and group composition of Atlantic white-sided dolphins along the west coast of Ireland, where population and social structure of the species are still poorly understood.

The pied flycatcher is one of the most phenotypically variable bird species in Europe. The geographic variation in phenotypes has often been attributed to spatial variation in selection regimes that is associated with the presence or absence of the congeneric collared flycatcher. Spatial variation in phenotypes could however also be generated by spatially restricted gene flow and genetic drift. We examined the genetic population structure of pied flycatchers across the breeding range and applied the phenotypic QST (P ST)-FST approach to detect indirect signals of divergent selection on dorsal plumage colouration in pied flycatcher males. Allelic frequencies at neutral markers were found to significantly differ among populations breeding in central and southern Europe whereas northerly breeding pied flycatchers were found to be one apparently panmictic group of individuals. Pairwise differences between phenotypic (PST) and neutral genetic distances (FST) were positively correlated after removing the most differentiated Spanish and Swiss populations from the analysis, suggesting that genetic drift may have contributed to the observed phenotypic differentiation in some parts of the pied flycatcher breeding range. Differentiation in dorsal plumage colouration however greatly exceeded that observed at neutral genetic markers, which indicates that the observed pattern of phenotypic differentiation is unlikely to be solely maintained by restricted gene flow and genetic drift. © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

We have studied a small isolated population of black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) in the Netherlands to examine the impact of isolation and reduction in numbers on genetic diversity. We compared the genetic diversity in the last extant Dutch population with Dutch museum samples and three other black grouse populations (from England, Austria and Norway, respectively) representing isolated and continuous populations. We found significantly lower allelic richness, observed and expected heterozygosities in the present Dutch population compared to the continuous populations (Austria and Norway) and also to the historical Dutch population. However, using a bottleneck test on each population, signs of heterozygosity excess were only found in the likewise isolated English population despite that strong genetic drift was evident in the present Dutch population in comparison to the reference populations, as assessed both in pairwise FST and structure analyses. Simulating the effect of a population reduction on the Dutch population from 1948 onwards, using census data and with the Dutch museum samples as a model for the genetic diversity in the initial population, revealed that the loss in number of alleles and observed heterozygosity was according to genetic drift expectations and within the standard error range of the present Dutch population. Thus, the effect of the strong decline in the number of grouse on genetic diversity was only detectable when using a reference from the past. The lack of evidence for a population reduction in the present Dutch population by using the program bottleneck was attributed to a rapidly found new equilibrium as a consequence of a very small effective population size

The processes and timescales associated with ocean-wide changes in the distribution of marine species have intrigued biologists since Darwin's earliest insights into biogeography. The Azores, a mid-Atlantic volcanic archipelago located >1000 km off the European continental shelf, offers ideal opportunities to investigate phylogeographic colonisation scenarios. The benthopelagic sparid fish known as the common two-banded seabream (Diplodus vulgaris) is now relatively common along the coastline of the Azores archipelago, but was virtually absent before the 1990s. We employed a multiple genetic marker approach to test whether the successful establishment of the Azorean population derives from a recent colonisation from western continental/island populations or from the demographic explosion of an ancient relict population. Results from nuclear and mtDNA sequences show that all Atlantic and Mediterranean populations belong to the same phylogroup, though microsatellite data indicate significant genetic divergence between the Azorean sample and all other locations, as well as among Macaronesian, western Iberian and Mediterranean regions. The results from Approximate Bayesian Computation indicate that D. vulgaris has likely inhabited the Azores for similar to 40 (95% confidence interval (CI): 5.5-83.6) to 52 (95% CI: 6.32-89.0) generations, corresponding to roughly 80-150 years, suggesting near-contemporary colonisation, followed by a more recent demographic expansion that could have been facilitated by changing climate conditions. Moreover, the lack of previous records of this species over the past century, together with the absence of lineage separation and the presence of relatively few private alleles, do not exclude the possibility of an even more recent colonisation event. MarinERA project 'Marine phylogeographic structuring during climate change: the signature of leading and rear edge of range shifting populations'; Eco-Ethology Research Unit (Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia, FEDER) [PEst-OE/MAR/UI0331/2011]; Marie Curie Grant; EU under the FP7; Regional, National and International Programmes, GA [600407]; Bandiera Project RITMARE; FCT Grant [SFRH/BPD/84923/2012]; OE; COMPETE; FCT; DRCTC/GovAzores info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The impact of demographic parameters on the genetic population structure and viability of organisms is a long-standing issue in the study of fragmented populations. Demographic and genetic tools are now readily available to estimate census and effective population sizes and migration and gene flow rates with increasing precision. Here we analysed the demography and genetic population structure over a recent 15-year time span in five remnant populations of Cabanis's greenbul (Phyllastrephus cabanisi), a cooperative breeding bird in a severely fragmented cloud forest habitat. Contrary to our expectation, genetic admixture and effective population sizes slightly increased, rather than decreased between our two sampling periods. In spite of small effective population sizes in tiny forest remnants, none of the populations showed evidence of a recent population bottleneck. Approximate Bayesian modelling, however, suggested that differentiation of the populations coincided at least partially with an episode of habitat fragmentation. The ratio of meta-N-e to meta-N-c was relatively low for birds, which is expected for cooperative breeding species, while N-e/N-c ratios strongly varied among local populations. While the overall trend of increasing population sizes and genetic admixture may suggest that Cabanis's greenbuls increasingly cope with fragmentation, the time period over which these trends were documented is rather short relative to the average longevity of tropical species. Furthermore, the critically low N-c in the small forest remnants keep the species prone to demographic and environmental stochasticity, and it remains open if, and to what extent, its cooperative breeding behaviour helps to buffer such effects.

The importance of evolutionary conservation – how understanding evolutionary forces can help guide conservation decisions – is widely recognized. However, the historical demography of many endangered species is unknown, despite the fact that this can have important implications for contemporary ecological processes and for extinction risk. Here, we reconstruct the population history of the Seychelles warbler (Acrocephalus sechellensis) – an ecological model species. By the 1960s, this species was on the brink of extinction, but its previous history is unknown. We used DNA samples from contemporary and museum specimens spanning 140 years to reconstruct bottleneck history. We found a 25% reduction in genetic diversity between museum and contemporary populations, and strong genetic structure. Simulations indicate that the Seychelles warbler was bottlenecked from a large population, with an ancestral Ne of several thousands falling to

[Background] The giant lizard of La Gomera (Gallotia bravoana), is an endemic lacertid of this Canary Island that lives confined to a very restricted area of occupancy in a steep cliff, and is catalogued as Critically Endangered by IUCN. We present the first population genetic analysis of the wild population as well as of captive-born individuals (for which paternity data are available) from a recovery center. Current genetic variability, and inferred past demographic changes were determined in order to discern the relative contribution of natural versus human-mediated effects on the observed decline in population size., [Results] Genetic analyses indicate that the only known natural population of the species shows low genetic diversity and acts as a single evolutionary unit. Demographic analyses inferred a prolonged decline of the species for at least 230 generations. Depending on the assumed generation time, the onset of the decline was dated between 1200–13000 years ago. Pedigree analyses of captive individuals suggest that reproductive behavior of the giant lizard of La Gomera may include polyandry, multiple paternity and female long-term sperm retention., [Conclusions] The current low genetic diversity of G. bravoana is the result of a long-term gradual decline. Because generation time is unknown in this lizard and estimates had large credibility intervals, it is not possible to determine the relative contribution of humans in the collapse of the population. Shorter generation times would favor a stronger influence of human pressure whereas longer generation times would favor a climate-induced origin of the decline. In any case, our analyses show that the wild population has survived for a long period of time with low levels of genetic diversity and a small effective population size. Reproductive behavior may have acted as an important inbreeding avoidance mechanism allowing the species to elude extinction. Overall, our results suggest that the species retains its adaptive potential and could restore its ancient genetic diversity under favorable conditions. Therefore, management of the giant lizard of La Gomera should concentrate efforts on enhancing population growth rates through captive breeding of the species as well as on restoring the carrying capacity of its natural habitat., This research was funded by the European Life Project n° LIFE 02 NAT-E-008614 to JAM and by the projects of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, REN 2001- 1514/GLO and CGL 2010–18216 to RZ.

In response to our review of the use of genetic bottleneck tests in the conservation literature (Peery etal. 2012, Molecular Ecology, 21, 3403-3418), Hoban etal. (2013, Molecular Ecology, in press) conducted population genetic simulations to show that the statistical power of genetic bottleneck tests can be increased substantially by sampling large numbers of microsatellite loci, as they suggest is now possible in the age of genomics. While we agree with Hoban and co-workers in principle, sampling large numbers of microsatellite loci can dramatically increase the probability of committing type 1 errors (i.e. detecting a bottleneck in a stable population) when the mutation model is incorrectly assumed. Using conservative values for mutation model parameters can reduce the probability of committing type 1 errors, but doing so can result in significant losses in statistical power. Moreover, we believe that practical limitations associated with developing large numbers of high-quality microsatellite loci continue to constrain sample sizes, a belief supported by a literature review of recent studies using next generation sequencing methods to develop microsatellite libraries. conclusion, we maintain that researchers employing genetic bottleneck tests should proceed with caution and carefully assess both statistical power and type 1 error rates associated with their study design.

Population structure can significantly affect genetic-based demographic inferences, generating spurious bottleneck-like signals. Previous studies have typically assumed island or stepping-stone models, which are characterized by symmetric gene flow. However, many organisms are characterized by asymmetric gene flow. Here, we combined simulated and empirical data to test whether asymmetric gene flow affects the inference of past demographic changes. Through the analysis of simulated genetic data with three methods (i.e. bottleneck, M-ratio and msvar), we demonstrated that asymmetric gene flow biases past demographic changes. Most biases were towards spurious signals of expansion, albeit their strength depended on values of effective population size and migration rate. It is noteworthy that the spurious signals of demographic changes also depended on the statistical approach underlying each of the three methods. For one of the three methods, biases induced by asymmetric gene flow were confirmed in an empirical multispecific data set involving four freshwater fish species (Squalius cephalus, Leuciscus burdigalensis, Gobio gobio and Phoxinus phoxinus). However, for the two other methods, strong signals of bottlenecks were detected for all species and across two rivers. This suggests that, although potentially biased by asymmetric gene flow, some of these methods were able to bypass this bias when a bottleneck actually occurred. Our results show that population structure and dispersal patterns have to be considered for proper inference of demographic changes from genetic data. Agence de l'Eau Adour-Garonne; Génopole Toulouse; Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche; Laboratoire d’Excellence (LABEX) entitled TULIP (ANR -10-LABX- 41).

Publication Inra prise en compte dans l'analyse bibliométrique des publications scientifiques mondiales sur les Fruits, les Légumes et la Pomme de terre. Période 2000-2012. http://prodinra.inra.fr/record/256699; Codling moth Cydia pomonella L. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is the most important insect pest of apple production in Europe. Despite the economic importance of this pest, there is not information about the genetic structure of its population in Greece and the patterns of gene-flow which might affect the success of control programs. In this study, we analysed nine samples from apple, pear and walnut from various regions of mainland Greece using 11 microsatellite loci. Six samples from the aforementioned hosts from southern France were also examined for comparison. Bayesian clustering and genetic distance analyses separated the codling moth samples in two genetic clusters. The first cluster consisted mainly of the individuals from Greece, and the second of those from France, although admixture and missclassified individuals were also observed. The low genetic differentiation among samples within each country was also revealed by FST statistics (0.009 among Greek samples and 0.0150 among French samples compared to 0.050 global value among all samples and 0.032 the mean of the pair-wise values between the two countries). These F-ST values suggest little structuring at large geographical scales in agreement with previous published studies. The host species and local factors (climatic conditions, topography, pest control programs) did not affect the genetic structure of codling moth populations within each country. The results are discussed in relation to human-made activities that promote gene-floweven at large geographic distances. Possible factors for the genetic differentiation between the two genetic clusters are also discussed.

The apple is the most common and culturally important fruit crop of temperate areas. The elucidation of its origin and domestication history is therefore of great interest. The wild Central Asian species Malus sieversii has previously been identified as the main contributor to the genome of the cultivated apple (Malus domestica), on the basis of morphological, molecular, and historical evidence. The possible contribution of other wild species present along the Silk Route running from Asia to Western Europe remains a matter of debate, particularly with respect to the contribution of the European wild apple. We used microsatellite markers and an unprecedented large sampling of five Malus species throughout Eurasia (839 accessions from China to Spain) to show that multiple species have contributed to the genetic makeup of domesticated apples. The wild European crabapple M. sylvestris, in particular, was a major secondary contributor. Bidirectional gene flow between the domesticated apple and the European crabapple resulted in the current M. domestica being genetically more closely related to this species than to its Central Asian progenitor, M. sieversii. We found no evidence of a domestication bottleneck or clonal population structure in apples, despite the use of vegetative propagation by grafting. We show that the evolution of domesticated apples occurred over a long time period and involved more than one wild species. Our results support the view that self-incompatibility, a long lifespan, and cultural practices such as selection from open-pollinated seeds have facilitated introgression from wild relatives and the maintenance of genetic variation during domestication. This combination of processes may account for the diversification of several long-lived perennial crops, yielding domestication patterns different from those observed for annual species., Author Summary The apple, one of the most ubiquitous and culturally important temperate fruit crops, provides us with a unique opportunity to study the process of domestication in trees. The number and identity of the progenitors of the domesticated apple and the erosion of genetic diversity associated with the domestication process remain debated. The Central Asian wild apple has been identified as the main progenitor, but other closely related species along the Silk Route running from Asia to Western Europe may have contributed to the genome of the domesticated crop. Using rapidly evolving genetic markers to make inferences about the recent evolutionary history of the domesticated apple, we found that the European crabapple has made an unexpectedly large contribution to the genome of the domesticated apple. Bidirectional gene flow between the domesticated apple and the European crabapple resulted in the domesticated apple being currently more similar genetically to this secondary genepool than to the ancestral progenitor, the Central Asian wild apple. We found that domesticated apples have evolved over long time scales, with contributions from at least two wild species in different geographic areas, with no significant erosion of genetic diversity. This process of domestication and diversification may be common to other fruit trees and contrasts with the models documented for annual crops.

Outcomes of host-pathogen coevolution are influenced by migration rates of the interacting species. Reduced gene flow with increasing spatial distance between populations leads to spatial genetic structure, as predicted by the isolation by distance (IBD) model. In wind-dispersed plant-pathogenic fungi, a significant spatial genetic structure is theoretically expected if local spore dispersal is more frequent than long-distance dispersal, but this remains to be documented by empirical data. For 29 populations of the oilseed rape fungus Leptosphaeria maculans sampled from two French regions, genetic structure was determined using eight minisatellite markers. Gene diversity (H = 0.62-0.70) and haplotypic richness (R = 0.96-1) were high in all populations. No linkage disequilibrium was detected between loci, suggesting the prevalence of panmictic sexual reproduction. Analysis of molecular variance showed that >97 % of genetic diversity was observed within populations. Genetic differentiation was low among populations (F(st) < 0.05). Although direct methods previously revealed short-distance dispersal for L. maculans, our findings of no correlation between genetic and geographic distances among populations illustrate that the IBD model does not account for dispersal of the fungus at the spatial scale we examined. These results indicate high gene flow among French populations of L. maculans, suggesting high dispersal rates and/or large effective population sizes, two characteristics giving the pathogen high evolutionary potential against the deployment of resistant oilseed rape cultivars.

Although the adder (Vipera berus) has a large distribution area, this species is particularly threatened in Western Europe due to high habitat fragmentation and human persecution. We developed 13 new microsatellite markers in order to evaluate population structure and genetic diversity in the Swiss and French Jura Mountains, where the species is limited to only a few scattered populations. We found that V. berus exhibits a considerable genetic differentiation among populations (global F-ST = 0.269), even if these are not geographically isolated. Moreover, the genetic diversity within populations in the Jura Mountains and in the less perturbed Swiss Alps is significantly lower than in other French populations, possibly due to post-glacial recolonisation processes. Finally, in order to minimize losses of genetic diversities within isolated populations, suggestions for the conservation of this species in fragmented habitats are proposed.

We have studied a small isolated population of black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) in the Netherlands to examine the impact of isolation and reduction in numbers on genetic diversity. We compared the genetic diversity in the last extant Dutch population with Dutch museum samples and three other black grouse populations (from England, Austria and Norway, respectively) representing isolated and continuous populations. We found significantly lower allelic richness, observed and expected heterozygosities in the present Dutch population compared to the continuous populations (Austria and Norway) and also to the historical Dutch population. However, using a bottleneck test on each population, signs of heterozygosity excess were only found in the likewise isolated English population despite that strong genetic drift was evident in the present Dutch population in comparison to the reference populations, as assessed both in pairwise FST and structure analyses. Simulating the effect of a population reduction on the Dutch population from 1948 onwards, using census data and with the Dutch museum samples as a model for the genetic diversity in the initial population, revealed that the loss in number of alleles and observed heterozygosity was according to genetic drift expectations and within the standard error range of the present Dutch population. Thus, the effect of the strong decline in the number of grouse on genetic diversity was only detectable when using a reference from the past. The lack of evidence for a population reduction in the present Dutch population by using the program bottleneck was attributed to a rapidly found new equilibrium as a consequence of a very small effective population size

International audience

Background Demographic bottlenecks can severely reduce the genetic variation of a population or a species. Establishing whether low genetic variation is caused by a bottleneck or a constantly low effective number of individuals is important to understand a species’ ecology and evolution, and it has implications for conservation management. Recent studies have evaluated the power of several statistical methods developed to identify bottlenecks. However, the false positive rate, i.e. the rate with which a bottleneck signal is misidentified in demographically stable populations, has received little attention. We analyse this type of error (type I) in forward computer simulations of stable populations having greater than Poisson variance in reproductive success (i.e., variance in family sizes). The assumption of Poisson variance underlies bottleneck tests, yet it is commonly violated in species with high fecundity. Results With large variance in reproductive success (V k ≥ 40, corresponding to a ratio between effective and census size smaller than 0.1), tests based on allele frequencies, allelic sizes, and DNA sequence polymorphisms (heterozygosity excess, M-ratio, and Tajima’s D test) tend to show erroneous signals of a bottleneck. Similarly, strong evidence of population decline is erroneously detected when ancestral and current population sizes are estimated with the model based method MSVAR. Conclusions Our results suggest caution when interpreting the results of bottleneck tests in species showing high variance in reproductive success. Particularly in species with high fecundity, computer simulations are recommended to confirm the occurrence of a population bottleneck.

We used in microsatellite loci to examine rangewide population structure and interpopulation gene flow in the federally threatened Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard (Uma inornata). Our results indicate low population differentiation consistent with high gene flow, recent colonization and range expansion, and/ or frequent local extirpation/recolonization events. Given high historical gene flow among populations and current isolation of remaining populations, conservation planning for this species should include monitoring of potential deleterious effects that may result from reduction in gene flow, such as inbreeding and loss of genetic variation, to ensure maintenance of ecological and evolutionary population processes adequate for long-term survival of the species., Organismic and Evolutionary Biology