Search

Woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) are declining across much of their distribution in Canada in response to habitat alteration, leading to unsustainable predation, particularly by wolves (Canis lupus). Habitat alteration can benefit the primary prey species of wolves (moose [Alces alces] and deer [Odocoileus spp.]) by creating early seral conditions that contain more of their preferred food types. This increase in primary prey populations results in elevated wolf abundance and heightened predation pressure on caribou. In response to the elevated wolf populations and the risks to caribou, managers have reduced wolf abundance in key areas. Ecological theory suggests that reducing wolf abundance would release moose from the top‐down effects of wolf predation, potentially allowing moose populations to grow. Elevated moose abundance thus has the potential to cause wolf populations to rebound quickly each year following reductions, suggesting a possible link between moose abundance and the number of wolves killed for caribou conservation. To test this idea we used a unique management situation in British Columbia and Alberta, Canada, where lethal wolf removals were annually conducted across specific southern mountain caribou population ranges and, in some places, moose populations were concurrently reduced via liberalized hunting. We used indices of moose abundance and wolf removal data to test the hypothesis that reducing moose populations to a historical abundance target by hunting leads to fewer wolves killed for caribou conservation. After controlling for habitat quality, wolves removed per km2 was 3.2 times lower in areas with reduced moose density (x¯ $\bar{x}$ = 1.55 wolves/1,000 km2 ± 0.33 [SE]) than in those without reduced moose density (x¯ $\bar{x}$ = 5.02 wolves/1,000 km2 ± 0.52). However, the average number of wolves removed per year decreased under both conditions. After 9 years, there was a 35% reduction in the predicted difference in the annual removal between areas with and without moose reduction. Our results suggest that policies that do not reduce or stabilize moose abundance will result in the removal of more wolves to increase caribou abundance. Like wolf reductions, moose reductions can also be controversial and affect local harvesters. Thus, understanding the consequences of actions that support caribou recovery is essential to supporting evidence‐based policy discussions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifying the consequences of winter ticks (Dermacentor albipictus) on the body condition and life‐history traits of moose (Alces alces) is a challenge due to several confounding factors. We experimentally reduced tick load on moose calves by testing the effectiveness of 2 acaricide treatments: one using topical permethrin (5%) alone and the other a combination of a more concentrated topical permethrin (44%) and orally administered fluralaner (25 mg/kg). We evaluated changes in tick load, body mass, hematocrit, and hair loss severity and occurrence, from recaptured or resighted moose calves over winter in Québec and New Brunswick, Canada. Nearly all untreated moose (94%, n = 41) experienced hair loss compared to calves that received the combination of permethrin (44%) and fluralaner (41%, n = 37). Of treated moose that exhibited hair loss, only 22% had more than 5% damage and some already had hair loss at capture. Capturing moose later likely increased the probability of observing hair loss when resighting treated moose, although hair loss essentially remained lower for treated calves than for untreated calves. In untreated moose, tick load at capture tended to drive hair loss, but calendar date mostly drove hair loss severity, especially during April. There was no clear effect of topical permethrin (5%) on tick load, body mass, and hematocrit. Body condition simply decreased from January captures to spring recaptures, regardless of treatment. Our results suggested that combining permethrin (44%) and fluralaner effectively reduced tick load based on hair loss severity and occurrence. We cannot, however, disentangle the individual effects of permethrin (44%) and fluralaner. We discuss research implications and considerations of using such a treatment for reducing winter tick load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snow conditions are changing rapidly across our planet, which has important implications for wildlife managers. In Alaska, USA, the later arrival of snow is challenging wildlife managers' ability to conduct aerial fall (autumn) moose (Alces alces) surveys. Complete snow cover is required to reliably detect and count moose using visual observation from an aircraft. With inadequate snow to help generate high‐quality moose survey data, it is difficult for managers to determine if they are effectively meeting population goals and optimizing hunting opportunities. We quantified past relationships and projected future trends between snow conditions and moose survey success across 7 different moose management areas in Alaska using 32 years (1987–2019) of moose survey data and modeled snow data. We found that modeled mean snow depth was 15 cm (SD = 11) when moose surveys were initiated, and snow depths were greater in years when surveys were completed compared to years when surveys were canceled. Further, we found that mean snow depth toward the beginning of the survey season (1 November) was the best predictor of whether a survey was completed in any given year. Based on modeled conditions, the trend in mean snow depth on 1 November declined from 1980 to 2020 in 5 out of 7 survey areas. These findings, coupled with future projections, indicated that by 2055, the delayed onset of adequate snow accumulation in the fall will prevent the completion of moose surveys over roughly 60% of Alaska's managed moose areas at this time of the year. Our findings can be used by wildlife managers to guide decisions related to the future reliability of aerial fall moose surveys and help to identify timelines for development of alternate measurement and monitoring methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background In prey, patterns of individual habitat selection and movement can be a consequence of an individuals’ anti-predator behavior. Adjustments of anti-predator behavior are important for prey to increase their survival. Hunters may alter the anti-predator behavior of prey. In long-lived animals, experience may cause behavioral changes during individuals’ lifetime, which may result in altered habitat selection and movement. Our knowledge of which specific events related to hunting activity induce behavioral changes in solitary living species is still limited. Methods We used offspring loss in a solitary and long-lived ungulate species, moose (Alces alces), as our model system. We investigated whether offspring loss to hunters induces behavioral changes in a species subjected to heavy human harvest but free from natural predation. To test for behavioral change in relation to two proxies for experience (calf fate and age), we combined movement data from 51 adult female moose with data on their offspring survival and female age. We tested for adjustments in females’ habitat selection and movement following calf harvest using Hidden Markov Models and integrated Step Selection Analysis to obtain behavioral state specific habitat selection coefficients. Results We found that females with a harvested calf modified habitat selection and movement during the following hunting season. Female moose selected for shorter distance to roads during the night, selected for shorter distance to forests and greater distance to human settlements following calf harvest than females who had not lost a calf. The survival of twins in a given hunting season was related to female age. Older females we more likely to have twins survive the hunting season. Conclusions Our findings suggest that losing offspring to human harvest imposes behavioral changes in a long-lived ungulate species, leading to adjustments in females' habitat selection and movement behavior, which may lower the risk of encountering hunters. In our study, female moose that experienced calf loss selected for lower distance to forest and selected for greater distance to human settlements during periods of high hunting pressure compared to females without the experience of calf loss during the previous hunting season. We interpret this as potential learning effects.

Survival of juvenile ungulates represents an important demographic parameter that influences population dynamics within ecosystems. In many ecological systems, the mortality of juvenile ungulates is influenced by various factors, including predation by large carnivores, human hunting activities and weather. While wolves Canis lupus are known to prey on moose Alces alces throughout all seasons, brown bears Ursus arctos primarily engage in predation during early summer, while human harvest primarily occurs in autumn and early winter. Hence, understanding the impacts of predation, harvest, and weather on the survival of juvenile moose is crucial for adaptive population management and the determination of sustainable harvest rates. To investigate the summer and autumn–winter survival of moose calves in relation to carnivore occurrence (wolf presence and bear density), summer habitat productivity, winter severity, human harvest, and migratory behaviour (migratory versus resident), we analysed data collected from 39 GPS‐collared female moose in south‐central Scandinavia. Our findings revealed significant interannual variation in summer survival rates, with areas with relatively higher bear densities exhibiting calf mortality rates twice as high as those in regions with low bear density. During the autumn–winter period, calf survival was lowest in the presence of wolves and deep snow, and it exhibited a negative correlation with the proportion of clearcuts and young forests within the mother's home range. Additionally, calf survival was negatively correlated with the risk of human hunting, and calves of stationary females displayed ten times higher survival rates compared to migratory individuals. Our study provides valuable insights into the survival of moose calves coexisting with two large carnivores and humans. Improving our understanding of the mechanisms causing calf survival to fluctuate has become increasingly important as many local moose populations in Scandinavia are declining and exposed to expanding predator populations, intense hunting pressure, and other threats associated with climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foraging behaviors often involve trade‐offs between predation risk and access to forage. Risk‐forage trade‐offs may be particularly acute for maternal female ungulates, whose nutritional needs are high and whose calves are highly vulnerable to predation. In moose, the selection of calving habitat is one way in which females can respond to these trade‐offs. Our objective was to compare among‐individual variation in selected habitat for maternal and nonmaternal female moose during the calving season. We hypothesized that, compared to nonmaternal females, maternal females would exhibit a greater range of variation among individuals, which may signal differential responses to risk‐forage trade‐offs. Meanwhile, we expected nonmaternal females to show comparatively less variation among individuals, consistent with a group primarily maximizing forage intake. To test our hypotheses, we used a path selection framework and a set of continuous remotely sensed map covariates to build predictive models and corresponding spatial predictions for maternal and nonmaternal groups. We then calculated the range of variation among individuals within each group along a relative unitless axis, which we call the "maternal difference index" and define as the divergence of predicted maternal habitat selection from nonmaternal habitat selection. We included 10,080 GPS collar locations for 24 female moose over three consecutive years. Our predictive models had high levels of accuracy (>75%) based both on independent test partitions of a nested cross‐validation and on independent very high frequency (VHF) location data, each including spatial and temporal replication. Both groups of females preferred areas where primary forage species were abundant, diverse, and within foraging height. Habitat selected by the maternal group both overlapped and was broader than habitat selected by the nonmaternal group. Based on the maternal difference index, maternal individuals were less consistent in their habitat selection than nonmaternal individuals. Given that habitat selection behaviors are one way in which animals respond to potential risk‐forage trade‐offs and that maternal individuals in our study differed along a continuum in their selection for primary forage species, we suggest that the concept of maternal trade‐offs, as it relates to habitat selection, is most useful when seen as individually determined and variable, rather than group‐determined and discrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moose (Alces alces) in boreal habitats feed and rest where they are exposed to Dipteran flies and the parasites they carry. We collected 31,905 flies during the summer from 12 habituated moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Moose flies, Haematobosca alcis (Snow), Diptera: Muscidae—a species that completes its entire life cycle on or around moose—accounted for 91% of flies collected; the reminder of the flies collected included mosquitoes (Culicidae), black flies (Simuliidae), and deer flies (Tabanidae). Flies impose physiological costs for moose, e.g. vectors for parasites such as Legworm (Onchocerca spp.) which causes sores on the hind legs of moose. We found that the number of sores present on the hind legs of moose is positively correlated with body fat, which suggests a correlation between gains of energy and damage from flies. We also found that the number of sores is negatively correlated with serum albumin, which is indicative of an inflammatory response and body protein being used to repair injuries from flies and parasites. The number or type of flies present on a Moose were not correlated with the concentration of corticosteroids in saliva or feces. Flies do not elicit a stress response in moose even though the costs of repairing wounds and resisting infections of those wounds likely reduce gains of protein from summer foraging. Moose can tolerate the injuries from biting flies with regular gains from summer foraging but exposure to insect-borne parasites poses a risk to reproduction and survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife contend with seasonal fluctuations in resource availability and have adapted survival and reproductive strategies to overcome resource limitations. Many northern ungulates are adapted to a dynamic nutritional landscape and rely on somatic reserves accumulated during the short growing season. Moose (Alces alces) populations in the boreal forest respond to variation in their nutritional landscapes that quickly change after wildland fires. We tested associations between somatic energy reserves of female moose and a suite of factors relevant to energy demands and nutrient availability after landscape scale wildland fires on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. From 2015-2022, we immobilized 97 individual, adult moose (n=163 early winter; n=98 late winter) and collected over 223,000 GPS locations. We evaluated if somatic energy reserves of cow moose were influenced by endogenous or exogenous energy demands, or access to moose forage to accumulate energy reserves. Cows that gave birth and lost their neonate(s) early in the summer had more early winter body fat (14.39% ± 0.24SE) compared with cows that gave birth and the neonate survived to 4-months-old (10.59% ± 0.34SE). Body fat measured in early winter was positively correlated with home ranges of cows during summer with a higher percent cover of aspen forage. Late winter body fat of cow moose was negatively correlated with home ranges with higher percent cover of aspen forage, but positively correlated with home ranges with higher percent cover of willows and shoulder season forages. Our results highlight that a suite of plant species and seral states is needed across the landscape for moose to accumulate and moderate the loss of somatic energy reserves over the year. Furthermore, our results emphasize the importance of shoulder season forages for moose when snow depth is low. Managing the nutritional landscape of the boreal forest through interagency wildland fire management could create a mosaic of seral states that enhances moose forage, while reducing wildland fire hazards along the wildland urban interface and providing ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In prey, patterns of individual habitat selection and movement can be a consequence of an individuals' anti-predator behavior. Adjustments of anti-predator behavior are important for prey to increase their survival. Hunters may alter the anti-predator behavior of prey. In long-lived animals, experience may cause behavioral changes during individuals' lifetime, which may result in altered habitat selection and movement. Our knowledge of which specific events related to hunting activity induce behavioral changes in solitary living species is still limited. Methods: We used offspring loss in a solitary and long-lived ungulate species, moose (Alces alces), as our model system. We investigated whether offspring loss to hunters induces behavioral changes in a species subjected to heavy human harvest but free from natural predation. To test for behavioral change in relation to two proxies for experience (calf fate and age), we combined movement data from 51 adult female moose with data on their offspring survival and female age. We tested for adjustments in females' habitat selection and movement following calf harvest using Hidden Markov Models and integrated Step Selection Analysis to obtain behavioral state specific habitat selection coefficients. Results: We found that females with a harvested calf modified habitat selection and movement during the following hunting season. Female moose selected for shorter distance to roads during the night, selected for shorter distance to forests and greater distance to human settlements following calf harvest than females who had not lost a calf. The survival of twins in a given hunting season was related to female age. Older females we more likely to have twins survive the hunting season. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that losing offspring to human harvest imposes behavioral changes in a long-lived ungulate species, leading to adjustments in females' habitat selection and movement behavior, which may lower the risk of encountering hunters. In our study, female moose that experienced calf loss selected for lower distance to forest and selected for greater distance to human settlements during periods of high hunting pressure compared to females without the experience of calf loss during the previous hunting season. We interpret this as potential learning effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals representing a wide range of taxonomic groups are known to select specific food combinations to achieve a nutritionally balanced diet. The nutrient balancing hypothesis suggests that, when given the opportunity, animals select foods to achieve a particular target nutrient balance, and that balancing occurs between meals and between days. For wild ruminants who inhabit landscapes dominated by human land use, nutritionally imbalanced diets can result from ingesting agricultural crops rich in starch and sugar (nonstructural carbohydrates [NCs]), which can be provided to them by people as supplementary feeds. Here, we test the nutrient balancing hypothesis by assessing potential effects that the ingestion of such crops by Alces alces (moose) may have on forage intake. We predicted that moose compensate for an imbalanced intake of excess NC by selecting tree forage with macro‐nutritional content better suited for their rumen microbiome during wintertime. We applied DNA metabarcoding to identify plants in fecal and rumen content from the same moose during winter in Sweden. We found that the concentration of NC‐rich crops in feces predicted the presence of Picea abies (Norway spruce) in rumen samples. The finding is consistent with the prediction that moose use tree forage as a nutritionally complementary resource to balance their intake of NC‐rich foods, and that they ingested P. abies in particular (normally a forage rarely eaten by moose) because it was the most readily available tree. Our finding sheds new light on the foraging behavior of a model species in herbivore ecology, and on how habitat alterations by humans may change the behavior of wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The management of big game harvest is important for maintaining viable populations and providing recreational opportunities to hunters. There are numerous strategies used by management agencies to achieve these goals, but they are complicated by variation in factors that are difficult to control, such as harvest success rates. For harvest management decisions to have the desired effect on big game populations, the mechanisms affecting factors like harvest success rates need to be properly understood. We used Bayesian hierarchical survival models to explore the factors influencing spatial and temporal variation in moose (Alces alces) harvest success rates in Ontario, Canada. We estimated harvest success rates from hunter reports from 59 Wildlife Management Units from 2000–2019. Overall, harvest success rates were primarily influenced by variables under the control of management agencies, such as season length and tag allocations, but they were also affected by external factors like moose density and weather. Season length, while positively related to harvest success for shorter seasons (e.g., <25 days), exhibited limited influence for longer seasons (>25 days). Our results were largely consistent across spatial and temporal scales, with a similarly strong positive effect of moose density and negative effect of tag allocation between management units and across years. This study emphasizes the need for managers to recognize the inherent uncertainty in harvest outcomes beyond their control and the importance of open communication with hunters in achieving effective harvest management, while offering concrete pathways for influencing harvest success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moose (Alces alces) and woodland caribou (Ranger tarandus caribou) are the 2 large prey species for wolves (Canis lupus) in the Nearctic boreal forest in North America. Caribou have declined, with widespread anthropogenic disturbance as the ultimate cause and wolf predation as the proximal cause. To conserve caribou the government of Alberta, Canada initiated a wolf control program to reduce predation rates on caribou populations and contribute to caribou population recovery. Predators play an important role in shaping the structure and function of ecosystems through top‐down forces. We hypothesized that the strongest factors influencing moose occurrences would reflect changes in predation risk before and after the onset of wolf control. We weighed evidence for competing hypothesis by deploying cameras across a highly industrialized landscape in Alberta for 3 years after wolf control (2017–2020), capitalizing on 3 years of existing data before the onset of wolf control (2011–2014). We created generalized linear models representing competing hypotheses about moose response to natural and anthropogenic landscape features before and after wolf control, examining support for each in an information‐theoretic framework. Prior to wolf control, the model containing landscape features providing security cover was best‐supported, but this was scale‐dependent. After wolf control, the model containing landscape features that offer increased forage opportunities was best‐supported. Unexpectedly, the direction of effect was often opposite to predictions, with moose avoiding some features thought to provide security and forage. We demonstrate that lethal predator control affects the spatial distribution of its primary prey species but in ways we do not fully comprehend, highlighting the need for a better understanding of community dynamics following wolf control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Host species heterogeneity can drive parasite dynamics through variation in host competency as well as host abundance. We explored how elk (Cervus canadensis) with apparent subclinical infestations of winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus) may be a cryptic reservoir and drive winter tick dynamics, impacting moose (Alces alces) populations. We found that winter tick infestation loads did not vary remarkably between both host species and winter ticks sourced from elk and moose produced similar numbers of larvae which activated within 5 days of each other. We also found similar larval densities in habitats predominately used by elk, moose, and both host species. Our analysis of 2793 informative single‐nucleotide polymorphisms showed genetic differentiation among tick populations that were only ~75 km apart, but fewer differences among ticks from elk or moose in the same locality, suggesting sharing of winter ticks across host species. Despite the clinical signs of high winter tick infestations being most apparent on moose, elk may be critical drivers of winter tick population dynamics and indirectly compete with moose in areas where they outnumber moose populations, a common characteristic of ungulate communities in western North America. Management interventions aimed at addressing winter tick issues on moose may wish to consider the movement patterns and abundance of cryptic reservoirs like elk.

Northern ungulates contend with Setaria yehi and Rumenfilaria andersoni, filarioid nematodes that are transmitted by ectoparasitic blood-feeding arthropods, which can result in animal and population level impacts. Setaria yehi microfilariae can be detected in fresh blood samples using a modified Knott's test, or by postmortem detection by genetic sampling or through the retrieval of adult specimens in the peritoneal cavity. In this study we validated a novel qPCR for detection of S. yehi DNA in blood samples of moose (Alces alces). Additionally, we compared quantitative values from modified Knott's test to detect both S. yehi and R. andersoni from both fresh and frozen blood samples. Species-specific primers targeting a 121-base pair fragment of the cytochrome oxidase c subunit 1 (cox1) of S. yehi, and a species-specific probe were designed. The qPCR had a detection threshold of 0.157 pg/μL of parasite DNA. We collected 166 blood samples from wild moose captured on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska from 2019 to 2022. Matching blood aliquots were tested by modified Knott's test and subjected to DNA extraction for subsequent qPCR. Quantitatively, blood samples had an average S. yehi microfilaremia (mf) of 472.2 mf/mL (0–14,490 mf/mL) and R. andersoni of 72.9 mf/mL (0.0–5071.5 mf/mL). Qualitatively, 32.53% (n = 54) of samples tested positive for S. yehi in each of the tests, and 37.35% (n = 62) when both tests were combined, with very good agreement between the results from Knott's test and qPCR (kappa = 0.90). The validation of the qPCR test for S. yehi allows for faster, less labor-intensive diagnosis and epidemiological surveillance of this emerging parasite in moose and other cervid hosts.

Moose (Alces alces; mooz [singular], moozoog [plural] in Anishinaabemowin, Ojibwe language) are an important species to many Indigenous rights‐holders and stakeholders throughout their circumpolar range. Management of moose can often lead to conflict when various perspectives of Indigenous nations are not recognized or appreciated. During the 55th North American Moose Conference and Workshop held in Grand Portage, Minnesota, USA, we held a workshop with 145 participants centered around co‐stewardship of moose among various Indigenous nations, federal, state, and provincial governments, academia, and non‐governmental agencies. Using a facilitator, the participants identified opportunities and challenges surrounding issues related to moose management. Participants then further identified priority improvements and action steps for co‐stewardship. Six core principles of Indigenous co‐stewardship were developed: 1) recognition of Indigenous Sovereignty, which specifies that co‐stewardship must begin with a recognition of the sovereignty of Indigenous nations and their inherent rights to manage, conserve, and preserve natural and cultural resources within their ancestral lands; 2) shared responsibility, where co‐stewardship is a shared responsibility between Indigenous nations, federal governments, and state governments; 3) cultural and ecological respect, which stipulates that co‐stewardship should honor the cultural significance of moose to Indigenous nations and recognize the ecological importance of moose within the broader ecosystem; 4) inclusive decision‐making, which details that co‐stewardship requires inclusive and equitable decision‐making processes that involve meaningful consultation and consent from Indigenous nations; 5) resource sharing and capacity building, where co‐stewardship involves the sharing of resources and knowledge between Indigenous and non‐Indigenous partners; and 6) adaptive management and sustainability, specifying that co‐stewardship should embrace adaptive management principles, where management strategies are continuously evaluated, adjusted, and improved based on new information and changing conditions. Some of the key takeaways from the workshop included that it will be essential to integrate Indigenous ways of knowing into an equitable and inclusive management system, there are existing models of co‐stewardship that can be built upon, it is critical to build trust among all key stakeholders and rights‐holders, and it will be important to establish formal and informal collaborative systems among all partners to support co‐stewardship at all levels. We discuss a study and synthesis on Indigenous co‐stewardship of moose and offer a synopsis and recommendations to advance restoration of moose in North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important symbolic and subsistence animal for many Native American Tribes, the moose (Alces alces; mos in Algonquin, Penobscot language) has been under consistent threat in the northeastern United States because of winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus) parasitism over the past several decades, causing declines in moose populations throughout the region. This decline has raised concern for Tribes and agencies that are invested in moose. Given this concern, it is increasingly important to effectively monitor and develop strategies to manage winter ticks to address consistent population declines of moose due to winter ticks. The Penobscot Nation developed a novel strategy to sample questing winter ticks (i.e., ticks that are actively seeking hosts) using a plot‐based sampling protocol that may be suitable for heterogeneous habitats. We deployed this protocol in the northeastern United States in 2022 during the tick questing period (Sep–Dec) on Penobscot Nation sovereign trust lands, the White Mountain National Forest and Umbagog National Wildlife Refuge, and western‐central Massachusetts, USA. We analyzed the data using occupancy and N‐mixture models. Detection probability peaked during mid‐October and tick occupancy and abundance were greatest at sites with intermediate understory vegetation height. The sampling protocol was successful at sampling ticks in Massachusetts, where abundances were expected to be low, indicating that it may be useful for studies planning to monitor winter tick distribution and abundance in areas with sub‐optimal moose habitat and where winter tick abundance is expected to be low. This approach may also benefit managers or researchers intending to monitor many species of hard ticks, and where imperfect detection is expected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The moose (Alces alces; mooz in Anishinaabemowin, Ojibwe language will follow scientific names) is a vital subsistence food source to Anishinabe people of the midwestern United States and has recently declined in Minnesota, USA, with poor calf survival as a contributing factor. Predation is the primary cause of moose calf mortality and we explored whether calf predation rates could be reduced through management of a single predator in a multi‐predator system. Thus, we examined predation rates and causes of calf mortality before (2013–2015) and during (2016–2018) implementation of a spring black bear (Ursus americanus; makwa) harvest season, using baits to attract black bears, on the Grand Portage Indian Reservation, Minnesota, where black bears and gray wolves (Canis lupus; ma'iinganag) are the primary predators of moose calves. We validated our early study findings for the 5 years following the initial study with intermittent spring bear hunting seasons, from 2019–2023. The spring bear hunt was canceled because of a pandemic lockdown in 2020, resumed 2021, and was closed in 2022 and 2023. Black bear harvest prior to adding a spring bear hunting season was 0.038 bears harvested/km2 from 2012–2015, whereas after initiating a spring hunting season (2016–2018) it was 17% higher at 0.046 bears/km2. We observed significantly lower bear predation (by 68%) in association with spring bear management and no compensatory change in the level of wolf predation. The validation years strengthened our findings that spring bear hunting seasons reduce moose calf predation rates, with an overall 68% lower proportion of bear predation on moose calves in the years when spring bear hunts were held. Mean proportion of calf predation attributed to bears was 4.9 times higher (30% vs. 6%) in the years when a spring bear hunt was not held. Despite an increasing wolf density during the study period, we did not observe a compensatory increase in wolf predation during spring bear hunt years. The results of this work suggest that the addition of a spring bear hunt, during a time when moose calves are most vulnerable to bear predation, has the potential to increase moose calf survival even in the presence of wolves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moose (Alces alces) in the boreal forest habitats of Alaska are unlike other northern ungulates because they tolerate high densities of flies (Diptera) even though flies cause wounds and infections during the warm summer months. Moose move to find food and to find relief from overheating (hyperthermia) but do they avoid flies? We used GPS collars to measure the rate of movement (m⋅h−1) and the time spent (min⋅day−1) by enclosed moose in four habitats: wetlands, black spruce, early seral boreal forest, and late seral boreal forest. Fly traps were used in each habitat to quantify spatio‐temporal abundance. Average daily air temperatures increased into July when peak biomass of forage for moose was greatest in early seral boreal forest habitats (424.46 vs. 25.15 kg⋅ha−1 on average in the other habitats). Average daily air temperatures were 1.7°C cooler in black spruce than other habitats, but fly abundance was greatest in black spruce (approximately 4‐fold greater on average than the other habitats). Moose increased their movement rate with counts of biting flies (mosquitoes, black flies, horse and deer flies), but not non‐biting flies (coprophagous flies). However, as air temperature increased (above 14.7°C) moose spent more time in fly‐abundant black spruce, than early seral boreal forest, showing great tolerance for mosquitoes. Warm summer temperatures appear to cause moose to trade‐off foraging in fly‐sparse habitats for resting and dissipating heat in shady, wet habitats with abundant flies that adversely affect the fitness of moose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hunting directly impacts the population dynamics of ungulates and can have a significant effect on the quality of phenotypic traits such as horns or antlers. In Poland, following a demographic collapse in the 1990s and the introduction of a hunting ban in 2001, the population of moose (Alces alces) has increased from 1,800 to over 20,000 individuals, recolonising its former range. As the moose is a charismatic species and a popular subject for nature photography, we analysed changes in antler size and shape in this cervid between 2005 and 2021 based on photos of male moose and antler casts provided by photographers or available in social media. Our findings indicate that during the hunting ban, the probability of observing the cervina antler type significantly decreased over time, from 47% in 2012 to 28% in 2021. Meanwhile, the probability of observing the intermediate and palmate antler types significantly increased from 44 to 53% and from 9 to 19%, respectively. The mean number of tines significantly increased from 3.2 in 2005 to 4.7 in 2021, and the antler size index significantly increased from 3.4 to 3.9. The most likely mechanism behind the observed changes could be the ageing of a population released from hunting pressure. We also observed regional variation in antler size, which is likely related to differences in environmental conditions. Our study serves as an example of how passive citizen science can contribute to our understanding of ecological trends and the quantification of population patterns. It also has important implications for management of species affected by trophy hunting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Foraging behaviors often involve trade‐offs between predation risk and access to forage. Risk‐forage trade‐offs may be particularly acute for maternal female ungulates, whose nutritional needs are high and whose calves are highly vulnerable to predation. In moose, the selection of calving habitat is one way in which females can respond to these trade‐offs. Our objective was to compare among‐individual variation in selected habitat for maternal and nonmaternal female moose during the calving season. We hypothesized that, compared to nonmaternal females, maternal females would exhibit a greater range of variation among individuals, which may signal differential responses to risk‐forage trade‐offs. Meanwhile, we expected nonmaternal females to show comparatively less variation among individuals, consistent with a group primarily maximizing forage intake. To test our hypotheses, we used a path selection framework and a set of continuous remotely sensed map covariates to build predictive models and corresponding spatial predictions for maternal and nonmaternal groups. We then calculated the range of variation among individuals within each group along a relative unitless axis, which we call the “maternal difference index” and define as the divergence of predicted maternal habitat selection from nonmaternal habitat selection. We included 10,080 GPS collar locations for 24 female moose over three consecutive years. Our predictive models had high levels of accuracy (>75%) based both on independent test partitions of a nested cross‐validation and on independent very high frequency (VHF) location data, each including spatial and temporal replication. Both groups of females preferred areas where primary forage species were abundant, diverse, and within foraging height. Habitat selected by the maternal group both overlapped and was broader than habitat selected by the nonmaternal group. Based on the maternal difference index, maternal individuals were less consistent in their habitat selection than nonmaternal individuals. Given that habitat selection behaviors are one way in which animals respond to potential risk‐forage trade‐offs and that maternal individuals in our study differed along a continuum in their selection for primary forage species, we suggest that the concept of maternal trade‐offs, as it relates to habitat selection, is most useful when seen as individually determined and variable, rather than group‐determined and discrete.

Wildlife contend with seasonal fluctuations in resource availability and have adapted survival and reproductive strategies to overcome resource limitations. Many northern ungulates are adapted to a dynamic nutritional landscape and rely on somatic reserves accumulated during the short growing season. Moose (Alces alces) populations in the boreal forest respond to variation in their nutritional landscapes that quickly change after wildland fires. We tested associations between somatic energy reserves of female moose and a suite of factors relevant to energy demands and nutrient availability after landscape scale wildland fires on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. From 2015–2022, we immobilized 97 individual, adult moose (n=163 early winter; n=98 late winter) and collected over 223,000 GPS locations. We evaluated if somatic energy reserves of cow moose were influenced by endogenous or exogenous energy demands, or access to moose forage to accumulate energy reserves. Cows that gave birth and lost their neonate(s) early in the summer had more early winter body fat (14.39% ± 0.24SE) compared with cows that gave birth and the neonate survived to 4-months-old (10.59% ± 0.34SE). Body fat measured in early winter was positively correlated with home ranges of cows during summer with a higher percent cover of aspen forage. Late winter body fat of cow moose was negatively correlated with home ranges with higher percent cover of aspen forage, but positively correlated with home ranges with higher percent cover of willows and shoulder season forages. Our results highlight that a suite of plant species and seral states is needed across the landscape for moose to accumulate and moderate the loss of somatic energy reserves over the year. Furthermore, our results emphasize the importance of shoulder season forages for moose when snow depth is low. Managing the nutritional landscape of the boreal forest through interagency wildland fire management could create a mosaic of seral states that enhances moose forage, while reducing wildland fire hazards along the wildland urban interface and providing ecosystem services.

The moose (Alces alces L.), a common large herbivore in the boreal region, impairs forest regeneration by browsing on tree seedlings and saplings. Moose prefer deciduous species, but during winter more coniferous seedlings are used. We used meta-analyses, separately for deciduous and coniferous seedlings, for evaluating whether excluding moose browsing affected seedling density and height. In addition, we compared (1) deciduous seedling proportion, (2) stand density, (3) elapsed time from fencing and (4) estimated moose density with moose exclusion effect sizes. Fencing had a positive effect on coniferous seedling height. With more deciduous trees in a seedling stand, the fencing effect for both seedling height and density of coniferous seedlings decreased. On the other hand, the fencing effects increased with denser stands. At some point effect sizes turned to negative, and conifer species varied in their response to browsing. This implies that deciduous seedlings can protect conifers from browsing by moose up to some mixing ratio, but when deciduous seedling densities are too high, their negative effect increases, presumably through increased competition. Our results suggest that a moderate deciduous admixture in conifer-dominated mixed seedling stands can decrease moose damage but also underline the significance of timely silvicultural measures to minimize the negative effects of excessive deciduous seedlings and too dense stands. Due to differences in coniferous and deciduous species, as well as their compositions and amounts in studied experiments, more studies adjusted to local conditions are still needed to give exact measures for silvicultural recommendations.

Island ecosystems provide natural laboratories to assess the impacts of isolation on population persistence. However, most studies of persistence have focused on a single species, without comparisons to other organisms they interact with in the ecosystem. The case study of moose and gray wolves on Isle Royale allows for a direct contrast of genetic variation in isolated populations that have experienced dramatically differing population trajectories over the past decade. Whereas the Isle Royale wolf population recently declined nearly to extinction due to severe inbreeding depression, the moose population has thrived and continues to persist, despite having low genetic diversity and being isolated for ∼120 years. Here, we examine the patterns of genomic variation underlying the continued persistence of the Isle Royale moose population. We document high levels of inbreeding in the population, roughly as high as the wolf population at the time of its decline. However, inbreeding in the moose population manifests in the form of intermediate-length runs of homozygosity suggestive of historical inbreeding and purging, contrasting with the long runs of homozygosity observed in the smaller wolf population. Using simulations, we confirm that substantial purging has likely occurred in the moose population. However, we also document notable increases in genetic load, which could eventually threaten population viability over the long term. Overall, our results demonstrate a complex relationship between inbreeding, genetic diversity, and population viability that highlights the use of genomic datasets and computational simulation tools for understanding the factors enabling persistence in isolated populations.

Osteoarthritis, periodontitis and osteoporosis are chronic, age-related diseases which adversely impact millions of people worldwide. Because these diseases pose a major global public health challenge, there is an urgent need to better understand how these diseases are interrelated. Our objective was to document the age and sex-specific prevalence of each disease and assess interrelationships among the three diseases in a wild mammal (moose, Alces alces) population. We examined the bones of moose dying from natural causes and recorded the severity of osteoarthritis (typically observed on the hip and lowest vertebrae), osteoporosis (osteoporotic lesions observed on the skull) and periodontitis (observed on maxilla and mandibles). Periodontitis was associated with a greater prevalence of both severe osteoarthritis and osteoporotic lesions in moose. We found no evidence to suggest that moose with osteoporotic lesions were more or less likely to exhibit signs of osteoarthritis or severe osteoarthritis. The prevalence of osteoarthritis, periodontitis and osteoporotic lesions was greater among males than for females. Our results were consistent with the hypothesis that bacterial pathogens causing periodontitis are a risk factor for osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. They are also consistent with the hypothesis that the inverse association between osteoarthritis and osteoporosis sometimes observed in humans may be influenced by shared risk factors, such as obesity, smoking or alcohol consumption, which are absent in moose. Together these results provide insights about three diseases which are expected to become more prevalent in the future and that cause substantial socio-economic burdens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observed links between parasites, such as ticks, and climate change have aroused concern for human health, wildlife population dynamics, and broader ecosystem effects. The one‐host life history of the winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus) links each annual cohort to environmental conditions during three specific time periods when they are predictably vulnerable: spring detachment from hosts, summer larval stage, and fall questing for hosts. We used mixed‐effects generalized linear models to investigate the drivers of tick loads carried by moose (Alces alces) relative to these time periods and across 750 moose, 10 years, and 16 study areas in the western United States. We tested for the effects of biotic factors (moose density, shared winter range, vegetation, migratory behavior) and weather conditions (temperature, snow, humidity) during each seasonal period when ticks are vulnerable and off‐host. We found that warm climatic regions, warm seasonal periods across multiple partitions of the annual tick life cycle, and warm years relative to long‐term averages each contributed to increased tick loads. We also found important effects of snow and other biotic factors such as host density and vegetation. Tick loads in the western United States were, on average, lower than those where tick‐related die‐offs in moose populations have occurred recently, but loads carried by some individuals may be sufficient to cause mortality. Lastly, we found interannual variation in tick loads to be most correlated with spring snowpack, suggesting this environmental component may have the highest potential to induce change in tick load dynamics in the immediate future of this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasitic nematodes are ubiquitous and can negatively impact their host by reducing fecundity or increasing mortality, yet the driver of variation in the parasite community across a wildlife host's geographic distribution remains elusive for most species. Based on an extensive collection of fecal samples (n = 264) from GPS marked moose (Alces alces), we used DNA metabarcoding to characterize the individual (sex, age class) and seasonal parasitic nematode community in relation to habitat use and migration behavior in five populations distributed across a wide latitudinal gradient (59.6°N to 70.5°N) in Norway. We detected 21 distinct nematode taxa with the six most common being Ostertagia spp., Nematodirella spp., Trichostongylus spp., T. axei, Elaphostrongylus alces, and an unclassified Strongylida. There was higher prevalence of livestock parasites in areas with larger sheep populations indicating a higher risk of spillover events. The individual level nematode richness was mostly consistent across study areas, while the number and type of nematode taxa detected at each study area varied considerably but did not follow a latitudinal gradient. While migration distance affected nematode beta-diversity across all sites, it had a positive effect on richness at only two of the five study areas suggesting population specific effects. Unexpectedly, nematode richness was higher in winter than summer when very few nematodes were detected. Here we provide the first extensive description of the parasitic nematode community of moose across a wide latitudinal range. Overall, the population-specific impact of migration on parasitism across the distribution range and variation in sympatry with other ruminants suggest local characteristics affect host-parasite relationships.

Comparative studies that feature the physiology of wild and domestic animals replenish the fundamental knowledge in the field of biology and adaptive potential, thus increasing the efficiency of domestication. Semi-free conditions and artificial environment create prerequisites for epidemics and stress. However, early detection can prevent critical situations. This research provides new data on moose biology and physiology by establishing age and sex hematological parameters. The study featured moose blood samples (n = 55) obtained in the Kirov Region in the northeast of European Russia. Hematological tests relied on a veterinary version of a MicroCC-20 Plus automatic analyzer (High Technology). This research was the first of its kind to introduce a comparative hematological analysis of local European moose according to age and sex. Adults and calves demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.05) in red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, mean concentration hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, platelet distribution width, red blood cell distribution width, platelet crit, platelets, leukocytes, and eosinophils. Females and males also had significant differences (p < 0.05) in red blood cells, hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, red blood cell distribution width, platelet distribution width, platelets, and eosinophil content. The single- and multivariate analysis made it possible to establish the effect of physiological factors on the blood parameters in moose. The hematological values were in line with the most indicators reported in other publications on wild artiodactyls. The existing differences in blood parameters depended on the species, habitat, food supply, age, and sex.

The moose has good prospects for hunting and game breeding. Peripheral blood indicators can provide information about their health status and adaptive capabilities, as well as non-infectious, infectious, and invasive pathologies. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity is one of the most common clinical biochemical tests in this respect. The study involved blood samples obtained from male moose (n = 75) of four age groups: calves aged 6–7 months, young animals of 18 months old, adults of 2.5–7.5 years old, and adults aged ≥ 8.5 years. The biomaterial sampling was carried out in October – December in the southern taiga subzone, Kirov Region. The blood samples were obtained by cutting the jugular vein (Venae jugularis) immediately after the animal was shot during legal hunting. The blood serum tests involved a semi-automatic biochemical analyzer (Biochem SA High Technology, USA). The alkaline phosphatase activity in male European moose during different periods of ontogenesis demonstrated the following pattern. In the first months of life, the enzyme activity was as high as 222.16 ± 31.14 U/L. This process was typical of intense hydrolysis of organic phosphorus esters, including the exchange of macroergs caused by rapid osteogenesis. At 18 months, the demand for organophosphorus compounds in metabolic processes decreased (46.48 ± 44.09 U/L), as did the role of the enzyme in maintaining homeostasis. In adults of 2.5–7.5 years old, alkaline phosphatase activity dropped to 69.88 ± 11.31 U/L. In 8.5-year-old males, it was as low as 47.34 ± 4.74 U/L. All age groups demonstrated significant differences in alkaline phosphatase activity. Therefore, age had a significant effect on enzyme activity. The study also revealed a certain correlation between alkaline phosphatase activity and body weight. The dynamics of alkaline phosphatase activity in ontogenesis reflected homeostatic changes in the moose body. Indicators of alkaline phosphatase activity can serve as an efficiency marker and an additional criterion in standard selection methods in zootechnical practice.

The study aimed to analyse the spatial structure of moose (Alces alces) in central-eastern Poland, taking into account sex structure and preferences regarding the composition of social groups. The density of animals in forest and swamp areas was analysed. Moose were shown to strongly prefer forest areas. Females moving with fawns and single females and males were most often observed. Statistical analysis confirmed that the biotope preference of this species does not depend on the type of social group in which the animals migrate. In the territory of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Lublin, the moose density per 1000 ha of forest and swamp averaged 5.9 individuals. Reproductive success and the number of young born were typical of the species. In 73% of cases, they moved in three dominant types of social groups, i.e. a hind with fawns, solitary stags and solitary hinds. The animals were found mainly in forest areas (65.1%). It should be remembered that in European forests it is very rarely possible to maintain Cervidae populations at a level that guarantees the absence of foraging effects on forest regeneration and the maintenance of its sustainability. Therefore, continuous monitoring of the species’ population size is recommended.

Abstract Background Timing of reproductive events can be crucial for a species’ population growth and stability. Accurate detection of reproductive phenology presents a challenge to scientists studying wild species, including moose (Alces alces). Currently, there are several established methods for monitoring reproductive activity and events in domestic ruminants, including the use of biologging devices. The main objective of this study was to determine whether female moose display a distinct thermal and activity pattern associated with luteal activity during the estrous cycle, which could be used to determine the onset of their breeding season. We deployed biologging devices and collected fecal samples from 12 captive female moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, USA to explore variation in vaginal temperature and collar activity and the relationship between these variables and fecal progestagen concentrations. Fecal samples were collected from mid-August to mid-October and analyzed using radioimmunoassay to determine the concentration of fecal progestagens to classify luteal activity. Results Captive female moose displayed an identifiable thermal pattern during the onset of luteal activity from mid-September to mid-October, associated with the initial estrous cycle of their breeding season. In contrast, we did not observe a distinct pattern in activity during this period. Recurring patterns in both vaginal temperature and activity were identified between mid-October and mid-November, however, which were likely associated with subsequent estrous cycles but not included in our fecal sampling period. Conclusions This study supports that female moose display an identifiable pattern in vaginal temperature which is associated with luteal activity of the initial estrous cycle of the breeding season. An identifiable pattern was observed for both vaginal temperature and activity registrations at the presumed timing of subsequent estrous cycle of the breeding season.

The overall increase of ungulate populations in modern Europe has contributed to conflicts in national economies, particularly between game management and the forestry sector. This study assessed damage risks to young pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and aspen (Populus tremula L.) stands at two spatial scales. One level assessed the interaction between sex-age structure of cervid populations, measured by pellet group density, and forest damages, measured as the percentage of heavily browsed trees in 2040 stand surveys distributed proportionally throughout the country. The second level compared pellet counts and trail-camera-based records of moose (Alces alces L.) and red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) presence in a pilot study area. We examined whether 1) there is a correlation between damage amount and ungulate population structure and 2) are the data from trail cameras suitable for wider use in monitoring ungulate population structure. The study confirmed significantly higher moose pellet group densities in pine than in spruce and aspen stands. Pine damages were greater in stands with higher moose pellet group density, especially with female moose prevailing over male moose density index. The red deer pellet group densities were significantly higher in heavily damaged pine and spruce stands, regardless of sex-age structure. In most cases, there were no statistically significant differences between the two survey methods of ungulate population structure by using pellet count transects and trail camera fixations. Both methods provide comparable data on sex-age structure in moose and red deer populations if seasonal and habitat-predicted biases are considered. However, trail cameras are more widely applicable and easier to use by hunters than pellet counts.

Abstract Observed links between parasites, such as ticks, and climate change have aroused concern for human health, wildlife population dynamics, and broader ecosystem effects. The one‐host life history of the winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus) links each annual cohort to environmental conditions during three specific time periods when they are predictably vulnerable: spring detachment from hosts, summer larval stage, and fall questing for hosts. We used mixed‐effects generalized linear models to investigate the drivers of tick loads carried by moose (Alces alces) relative to these time periods and across 750 moose, 10 years, and 16 study areas in the western United States. We tested for the effects of biotic factors (moose density, shared winter range, vegetation, migratory behavior) and weather conditions (temperature, snow, humidity) during each seasonal period when ticks are vulnerable and off‐host. We found that warm climatic regions, warm seasonal periods across multiple partitions of the annual tick life cycle, and warm years relative to long‐term averages each contributed to increased tick loads. We also found important effects of snow and other biotic factors such as host density and vegetation. Tick loads in the western United States were, on average, lower than those where tick‐related die‐offs in moose populations have occurred recently, but loads carried by some individuals may be sufficient to cause mortality. Lastly, we found interannual variation in tick loads to be most correlated with spring snowpack, suggesting this environmental component may have the highest potential to induce change in tick load dynamics in the immediate future of this region.

Understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of animal road mortality is important for planning protective measures and raising driver awareness. In our study of Lithuania, spanning from 2002 to 2022, we examined these patterns based on road types and categorized them by working days, weekends, and long weekends, predicting the potential impact of transitioning to a four-day working week. We found that road type explains 22–50% of the variability in roadkill numbers for moose, red deer, wild boar, and roe deer. The highest occurrences were on main roads, while regional roads had the fewest incidents. The overall number of roadkills, especially those involving ungulates, was highest on weekends, followed by workdays, with the least on long weekends. However, these variations lacked statistical significance, and their effect size was small. We also observed a trend of increased roadkill numbers on the day before, the first day, notably on All Saints Day, or the last day of long weekends. In this context, with the introduction of a four-day work week, we are only expecting the highest roadkill numbers to move from Friday to Thursday. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apex carnivores that rely primarily on predation play a central but complex role within scavenging ecology by potentially suppressing intra-guild competitors, but also facilitating them by providing a reliable supply of carrion. We investigated the competitive relationship between sympatric wolves (Canis lupus) and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in Norway across three seasons. We deployed remote cameras at fresh wolf kills (n = 29) and built Bayesian generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) to explore the use of fresh wolf-killed prey by sympatric wolves and wolverines. Our results showed that wolves facilitated wolverines by providing scavenging opportunities. Biomass available from wolf kills was influenced by seasonal wolf prey preference and group size. Wolverines visited 100% of wolf kills in fall and winter, whereas only 18% in summer. We found that in winter, wolverines visited wolf kills 3.6 and 6.7 times more often than single wolves and wolf groups revisited their kills, and spent 10 and 25 times as much time at carcasses compared to single wolves and groups of wolves. Thus, wolverines played an important role in the depletion of wolf-killed prey, with potential effects on the scavenging behavior of other guild members. Understanding how globally threatened top predators may function as key species in scavenging processes is important to conservation as this may have community-wide cascading effects and support important ecosystem functions and services. Significance statement: Large carnivores serve a central role within scavenging ecology through the suppression and facilitation of intraguild competitors. The wolf, as an apex obligate predator, can provide a reliable supply of carrion, that can serve as an important resource to facultative scavengers. However, while facultative behavior helps to mitigate the effects of limited prey for scavengers, it can also increase exposure to competition and intraguild predation. Across three seasons, we explored the use of fresh wolf-killed prey by sympatric wolves and wolverines. Our findings reveal that wolves facilitate wolverines by providing scavenging opportunities, where biomass available from kills is influenced by wolves' prey preference and group size. Wolverines, like wolves, utilized kills heavily during winter, when increased access to food is important to wolverine reproductive rates. Wolverines exhibited caching behavior, possibly reducing exposure to interspecific competition, while serving an important role in the depletion of carrion biomass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this note, I report on my observations of a pair of Canada Jays (Perisoreus canadensis) gathering live engorged female Winter Ticks (Dermacentor albipictus) from the recent bed of a yearling Moose (Alces alces) and flying into the adjacent woods to cache the ticks before returning for more. The Moose bed was on snow and contained loose hair and blood-stained snow as well as the engorged ticks. I found 12 additional beds on snow during the next 48 h within 250 m of the original bed, and all contained loose hair and blood-stained snow, but no ticks. Jays may routinely visit Moose beds on snow in spring because they recognize them as a potential source of food. Moose, however, may not be present during spring in many jay territories, so access to engorged ticks at beds is probably opportunistic and unreliable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the advent of high‐resolution GPS tracking technology has helped increase our understanding of individual and multispecies behavior in wildlife systems, detecting and recording direct interactions between free‐ranging animals remains difficult. In 2023, we deployed GPS collars equipped with proximity sensors (GPS proximity collars) on brown bears (Ursus arctos) and moose (Alces alces) as part of a multispecies interaction study in central Sweden. On 6 June, 2023, a collar on an adult female moose and a collar on an adult male bear triggered each other's UHF signal and started collecting fine‐scale GPS positioning data. The moose collar collected positions every 2 min for 89 min, and the bear collar collected positions every 1 min for 41 min. On 8 June, field personnel visited the site and found a female neonate moose carcass with clear indications of bear bite marks on the head and neck. During the predation event, the bear remained at the carcass while the moose moved back and forth, moving toward the carcass site about five times. The moose was observed via drone with two calves on 24 May and with only one remaining calf on 9 June. This case study describes, to the best of our knowledge, the first instance of a predation event between two free ranging, wild species recorded by GPS proximity collars. Both collars successfully triggered and switched to finer‐scaled GPS fix rates when the individuals were in close proximity, producing detailed movement data for both predator and prey during and after a predation event. We suggest that, combined with standard field methodology, GPS proximity collars placed on free‐ranging animals offer the ability for researchers to observe direct interactions between multiple individuals and species in the wild without the need for direct visual observation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In North America, some moose populations are declining, and meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) infections may be contributing. Moose are aberrant hosts for meningeal worm and develop severe pathology whereas white-tailed deer (WTD) are definitive hosts that experience minimal pathology and spread parasite larvae into the environment. Analyses of harvested WTD heads confirmed meningeal worm in Western Manitoba, Canada including in areas where moose have experienced population declines and are currently of management concern. The prevalence of larval meningeal worm from WTD feces in these areas are unknown, particularly because the dorsal-spined larvae (DSL) are morphologically indistinguishable from muscle worm (Parelaphostrongylus andersoni). To assess transmission risk of DSL, we investigated the spatial and temporal variation of prevalence in WTD feces from four areas (two with historical moose population declines and two without) sampled across two summers. We predicted higher prevalence of DSL in areas where moose are of management concern and surveys have shown higher meningeal worm prevalence in WTD heads. Further, we expected to only recover meningeal worm, as muscle worm has only been reported from caribou in more northern areas of Manitoba. We collected WTD feces by transect sampling, used the Baermann technique to obtain larvae, and sequenced partial cytochrome oxidase 1 and internal transcribed spacer 2 genes to confirm species identity. Zero-inflated models revealed that DSL prevalence did not differ temporally but was higher in areas where moose are of management concern. Genetic analyses revealed that meningeal worm and muscle worm were both present in Western Manitoba and co-occurred in three areas. Our results reveal novel insights into the geographic distribution of muscle worm and emphasize the importance of DNA sequencing for DSL identification. We suggest that concern for moose populations is warranted given the increased risk of parasite infection in some management areas.

Abstract Background Monitoring the behavior of wild animals in situ can improve our understanding of how their behavior is related to their habitat and affected by disturbances and changes in their environment. Moose (Alces alces) are keystone species in their boreal habitats, where they are facing environmental changes and disturbances from human activities. How these potential stressors can impact individuals and populations is unclear, in part due to our limited knowledge of the physiology and behavior of moose and how individuals can compensate for stress and disturbances they experience. We collected data from collar-mounted fine-scale tri-axial accelerometers deployed on captive moose in combination with detailed behavioral observations to train a random forest supervised classification algorithm to classify moose accelerometer data into discrete behaviors. To investigate the generalizability of our model to collared new individuals, we quantified the variation in classification performance among individuals. Results Our machine learning model successfully classified 3-s accelerometer data intervals from 12 Alaskan moose (A. a. gigas) and two European moose (A. a. alces) into seven behaviors comprising 97.6% of the 395 h of behavioral observations conducted in summer, fall and spring. Classification performance varied among behaviors and individuals and was generally dependent on sample size. Classification performance was highest for the most common behaviors lying with the head elevated, ruminating and foraging (precision and recall across all individuals between 0.74 and 0.90) comprising 79% of our data, and lower and more variable among individuals for the four less common behaviors lying with head down or tucked, standing, walking and running (precision and recall across all individuals between 0.28 and 0.79) comprising 21% of our data. Conclusions We demonstrate the use of animal-borne accelerometer data to distinguish among seven main behaviors of captive moose and discuss generalizability of the results to individuals in the wild. Our results can support future efforts to investigate the detailed behavior of collared wild moose, for example in the context of disturbance responses, time budgets and behavior-specific habitat selection.

Background: Timing of reproductive events can be crucial for a species' population growth and stability. Accurate detection of reproductive phenology presents a challenge to scientists studying wild species, including moose (Alces alces). Currently, there are several established methods for monitoring reproductive activity and events in domestic ruminants, including the use of biologging devices. The main objective of this study was to determine whether female moose display a distinct thermal and activity pattern associated with luteal activity during the estrous cycle, which could be used to determine the onset of their breeding season. We deployed biologging devices and collected fecal samples from 12 captive female moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, USA to explore variation in vaginal temperature and collar activity and the relationship between these variables and fecal progestagen concentrations. Fecal samples were collected from mid-August to mid-October and analyzed using radioimmunoassay to determine the concentration of fecal progestagens to classify luteal activity. Results: Captive female moose displayed an identifiable thermal pattern during the onset of luteal activity from mid-September to mid-October, associated with the initial estrous cycle of their breeding season. In contrast, we did not observe a distinct pattern in activity during this period. Recurring patterns in both vaginal temperature and activity were identified between mid-October and mid-November, however, which were likely associated with subsequent estrous cycles but not included in our fecal sampling period. Conclusions: This study supports that female moose display an identifiable pattern in vaginal temperature which is associated with luteal activity of the initial estrous cycle of the breeding season. An identifiable pattern was observed for both vaginal temperature and activity registrations at the presumed timing of subsequent estrous cycle of the breeding season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to analyse the spatial structure of moose (Alces alces) in central-eastern Poland, taking into account sex structure and preferences regarding the composition of social groups. The density of animals in forest and swamp areas was analysed. Moose were shown to strongly prefer forest areas. Females moving with fawns and single females and males were most often observed. Statistical analysis confirmed that the biotope preference of this species does not depend on the type of social group in which the animals migrate. In the territory of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Lublin, the moose density per 1000 ha of forest and swamp averaged 5.9 individuals. Reproductive success and the number of young born were typical of the species. In 73% of cases, they moved in three dominant types of social groups, i.e. a hind with fawns, solitary stags and solitary hinds. The animals were found mainly in forest areas (65.1%). It should be remembered that in European forests it is very rarely possible to maintain Cervidae populations at a level that guarantees the absence of foraging effects on forest regeneration and the maintenance of its sustainability. Therefore, continuous monitoring of the species' population size is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring is a prerequisite for evidence‐based wildlife management and conservation planning, yet conventional monitoring approaches are often ineffective for species occurring at low densities. However, some species such as large mammals are often observed by lay people and this information can be leveraged through citizen science monitoring schemes. To ensure that such wildlife monitoring efforts provide robust inferences, assessing the quantity, quality, and potential biases of citizen science data is crucial. For Eurasian moose (Alces alces), a species currently recolonizing north‐eastern Germany and occurring in very low numbers, we applied three citizen science tools: a mail/email report system, a smartphone application, and a webpage. Among these monitoring tools, the mail/email report system yielded the greatest number of moose reports in absolute and in standardized (corrected for time effort) terms. The reported moose were predominantly identified as single, adult, male individuals, and reports occurred mostly during late summer. Overlaying citizen science data with independently generated habitat suitability and connectivity maps showed that members of the public detected moose in suitable habitats but not necessarily in movement corridors. Also, moose detections were often recorded near roads, suggestive of spatial bias in the sampling effort. Our results suggest that citizen science‐based data collection can be facilitated by brief, intuitive digital reporting systems. However, inference from the resulting data can be limited due to unquantified and possibly biased sampling effort. To overcome these challenges, we offer specific recommendations such as more structured monitoring efforts involving the public in areas likely to be roamed by moose for improving quantity, quality, and analysis of citizen science‐based data for making robust inferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grazing and browsing by large ungulates can have a strong effect on habitat composition and structure. Associated effects can be reduction in the abundance of palatable tree species and alter understory properties, thereby affecting habitat complexity. Changes in habitat structure and complexity can in turn affect arthropod predation pressure, as arthropod predators are strongly influenced by habitat characteristics. This may be increasingly important in production forests, as such systems are often more vulnerable to disturbances such as pest insects. However, studies exploring this indirect link between ungulates and predation rate are sparse. We explore this link through the comparison of fenced plots excluding ungulates (for four years) with associated control plots replicated in 16 forest stands covering a large geographical area. We measured vegetation characteristics to assess the effect of exclusion on habitat structure. We used plasticine models to compare predation rates in fenced and control plots on pine trees. In addition, we sampled herbivorous insects to explore the potential relationship between predation and herbivore abundance. We could only demonstrate a weak effect of browser exclusion on habitat structure, suggesting that the time of exclusion was too short to cause a vegetation response. In terms of arthropod predation, we found that predation was positively affected by understory cover, but not related to herbivore abundance. Understory properties such as species composition and biomass has been demonstrated to be affected by ungulates in other studies. Therefore, we propose that ungulate browsing – despite weak effects of browsing exclusion in our study – can affect arthropod predation via changes in the understory, which could potentially affect pest populations. Our study is one of the first attempts to connect effects of mammalian browsing to changes in predation rates on herbivorous insects.

Abstract Background Although wild ungulate populations are heavily monitored throughout Europe, we understand little of how parasites affect population dynamics, and there is no systematic, long-term monitoring of parasite diversity and parasite loads. Such monitoring is in part hampered by a lack of time- and cost-effective assay methodologies with high sensitivity and good taxonomic resolution. DNA metabarcoding has been successfully used to characterize the parasitic nemabiome with high taxonomic resolution in a variety of wild and domestic hosts. However, in order to implement this technique in large-scale, potentially non-invasive monitoring of gastrointestinal parasitic nematodes (GIN), protocol optimization is required to maximize biodiversity detection, whilst maintaining time- and cost-effectiveness. Methods Faecal samples were collected from a wild moose population and GIN communities were characterized and quantified using both parasitological techniques (egg and larva counting) and DNA metabarcoding of the ITS2 region of rDNA. Three different isolation methods were compared that differed in the volume of starting material and cell lysis method. Results Similar nematode faunas were recovered from all samples using both parasitological and metabarcoding methods, and the approaches were largely congruent. However, metabarcoding assays showed better taxonomic resolution and slightly higher sensitivity than egg and larvae counts. The metabarcoding was not strictly quantitative, but the proportion of target nematode sequences recovered was correlated with the parasitologically determined parasite load. Species detection rates in the metabarcoding assays were maximized using a DNA isolation method that included mechanical cell disruption and maximized the starting material volume. Conclusions DNA metabarcoding is a promising technique for the non-invasive, large-scale monitoring of parasitic GINs in wild ungulate populations, owing to its high taxonomic resolution, increased assay sensitivity, and time- and cost-effectiveness. Although metabarcoding is not a strictly quantitative method, it may nonetheless be possible to create a management- and conservation-relevant index for the host parasite load from this data. To optimize the detection rates and time- and cost-effectiveness of metabarcoding assays, we recommend choosing a DNA isolation method that involves mechanical cell disruption and maximizes the starting material volume. Graphical Abstract

Background: Monitoring the behavior of wild animals in situ can improve our understanding of how their behavior is related to their habitat and affected by disturbances and changes in their environment. Moose (Alces alces) are keystone species in their boreal habitats, where they are facing environmental changes and disturbances from human activities. How these potential stressors can impact individuals and populations is unclear, in part due to our limited knowledge of the physiology and behavior of moose and how individuals can compensate for stress and disturbances they experience. We collected data from collar-mounted fine-scale tri-axial accelerometers deployed on captive moose in combination with detailed behavioral observations to train a random forest supervised classification algorithm to classify moose accelerometer data into discrete behaviors. To investigate the generalizability of our model to collared new individuals, we quantified the variation in classification performance among individuals. Results: Our machine learning model successfully classified 3-s accelerometer data intervals from 12 Alaskan moose (A. a. gigas) and two European moose (A. a. alces) into seven behaviors comprising 97.6% of the 395 h of behavioral observations conducted in summer, fall and spring. Classification performance varied among behaviors and individuals and was generally dependent on sample size. Classification performance was highest for the most common behaviors lying with the head elevated, ruminating and foraging (precision and recall across all individuals between 0.74 and 0.90) comprising 79% of our data, and lower and more variable among individuals for the four less common behaviors lying with head down or tucked, standing, walking and running (precision and recall across all individuals between 0.28 and 0.79) comprising 21% of our data. Conclusions: We demonstrate the use of animal-borne accelerometer data to distinguish among seven main behaviors of captive moose and discuss generalizability of the results to individuals in the wild. Our results can support future efforts to investigate the detailed behavior of collared wild moose, for example in the context of disturbance responses, time budgets and behavior-specific habitat selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In North America, some moose populations are declining, and meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) infections may be contributing. Moose are aberrant hosts for meningeal worm and develop severe pathology whereas white-tailed deer (WTD) are definitive hosts that experience minimal pathology and spread parasite larvae into the environment. Analyses of harvested WTD heads confirmed meningeal worm in Western Manitoba, Canada including in areas where moose have experienced population declines and are currently of management concern. The prevalence of larval meningeal worm from WTD feces in these areas are unknown, particularly because the dorsal-spined larvae (DSL) are morphologically indistinguishable from muscle worm (Parelaphostrongylus andersoni). To assess transmission risk of DSL, we investigated the spatial and temporal variation of prevalence in WTD feces from four areas (two with historical moose population declines and two without) sampled across two summers. We predicted higher prevalence of DSL in areas where moose are of management concern and surveys have shown higher meningeal worm prevalence in WTD heads. Further, we expected to only recover meningeal worm, as muscle worm has only been reported from caribou in more northern areas of Manitoba. We collected WTD feces by transect sampling, used the Baermann technique to obtain larvae, and sequenced partial cytochrome oxidase 1 and internal transcribed spacer 2 genes to confirm species identity. Zero-inflated models revealed that DSL prevalence did not differ temporally but was higher in areas where moose are of management concern. Genetic analyses revealed that meningeal worm and muscle worm were both present in Western Manitoba and co-occurred in three areas. Our results reveal novel insights into the geographic distribution of muscle worm and emphasize the importance of DNA sequencing for DSL identification. We suggest that concern for moose populations is warranted given the increased risk of parasite infection in some management areas. [Display omitted] • Higher Parelaphostrongylus transmission risk in areas with moose management concern. • DNA sequencing reveals meningeal worm and muscle worm in white-tailed deer feces. • Novel reports of muscle worm infections in white-tailed deer in Manitoba. • Meningeal worm and muscle worm co-occur throughout Western Manitoba. • Wider geographic distribution of muscle worm in Manitoba than previously reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Instrumentation and sample collection for wildlife research and management may require chemical immobilisation of animals, which may entail physiological and behavioural effects on them. It is therefore important to evaluate the immobilisation protocols to reduce the risk of mortality and morbidity of the handled animals and their populations. Using a multi-sensor approach, we assessed the short-term (< 10 days) thermal and behavioural responses of 10 adult female moose (Alces alces) equipped with ruminal temperature loggers and GPS collars with accelerometers to helicopter-based chemical immobilisations. We investigated the body temperature (Tb), movement rates, and resting time before, during, and after recapture. Chemical immobilisations on average increased maximum Tb by 0.71 °C during the capture day, and imposed longer travel distances during the capture day and the two following days (3.8 and 1.8 km, respectively), compared to a 10-day reference period before the immobilisation. The probability of resting was 5–6% lower on the capture day and the two following days compared to the reference period, and females with offspring had a higher probability of resting than females without. Maximum Tb, movement rate, and resting time returned to pre-capture levels on an individual level 2 h, 3 days, and 3 days after the immobilisation, respectively. Chemical immobilisation of moose from a helicopter increases the energy expenditure deduced through movement and Tb rise lasting for hours to days. Ecological and physiological studies aimed at inferring general patterns may encounter bias if including sensor and tracking data from tagged animals without accounting for potential post-capture effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data on wildlife abundance is an important indicator both for the species concerned and the stability of entire ecosystems as well as for sustainable game management. Therefore, the abundance of ungulate game was verified in a foothill region of Kazakhstan. The methods of thermal imagery and faecal pellet group (FPG) census on transects were compared. The results obtained by the FPG counting method for moose (Alces alces, 0.34 individuals per 100 ha) and maral deer (Cervus elaphus sibiricus, 0.04 individuals per 100 ha) were relatively consistent with the data reported by the hunting ground tenants. Only one moose was detected by the thermal imaging transect count method. The results show that deer and moose abundance in Kazakhstan is significantly lower than in Central and Eastern Europe. Thus, for Kazakhstan, the method of FPG counting is well applicable for both routine and control counts. Detailed data on game populations can be obtained using the camera trap counting method, which has not been verified in Kazakhstan as yet.

Abstract Hunter populations can provide a tremendous workforce of citizen scientists afield when queried for data. Soliciting incidental observations of non‐target species from hunters may be a relatively important but untapped population monitoring resource in systems where hunter effort is common and widespread. During 2012–2016, we queried hunters of deer and elk for observations of a non‐target species, moose, across their statewide distribution in Montana. We analysed data in an abundance‐detection framework with n‐mixture models and evaluated the effects of covariates such as hunter effort, survey response totals, weekly session and forest cover on detection probability before using models to predict moose abundance. We collected an average of 3409 moose observations per year and our best n‐mixture model included effects of week, year (number of responses), site (proportionate forest cover) and site‐year (hunter effort) on detection probability, as well as an effect of site (area of forest and shrub habitat) on abundance. Density estimates averaged 0.099 (range 0.002–0.439) moose/km2 across sites or 0.200 (range 0.017–0.799) moose/km2 when limited to density within shrub and forest cover specifically. Statewide abundance totals across the 5‐year study period averaged 10,755 (range 9925–11,620). Goodness‐of‐fit tests showed that models were identifiable and overdispersion of the data was low, yet some caution is still warranted when extrapolating these data to abundance estimates. Querying a sample of deer‐elk hunters for observations of a non‐target species yielded thousands of spatially georeferenced detections per year and analysis in a temporally structured framework yielded estimates of both detection probability and abundance. Abundance estimates at this scale are unprecedented for moose in Montana and are encouraging for long‐term monitoring over space and time.

Heavy infestations with winter ticks (Dermacentor albipictus (Packard, 1869)) have been associated with mortality of moose (Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758)). Recumbency is an obligate behaviour for moose when ruminating and when conserving core body heat in cold weather. Recumbent behaviours were used to establish impacts of ticks and ambient temperatures on moose calves during the winter. Calves (n = 12) were evenly divided into no-tick, low-tick, and high-tick groups. Recumbency bout duration increased over the winter but was independent of the tick group. The probability of ruminating decreased during warm temperatures for infested moose in the early stages of infestation. Legs tucked tightly decreased with increasing ambient temperature for all groups, and all groups had a higher probability of head down when ambient conditions were colder. The greatest differences in behaviour were between moose of the high-tick group and other moose. During the most active tick phases when ambient conditions dropped below −10 °C, moose of the high-tick group had a higher probability of being recumbent with their head down and legs tucked tight to the body. Energy conservation, irritation from ticks, and the impact of body condition are the three primary stimuli that most likely influenced recumbent postures of moose calves in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]