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It may seem remarkable that, 23 years after the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), there is still denial that the virus is the cause of acquired immune deficiency [...]

Between 1990 and 2005, HIV prevalence rates in South Africa jumped from less than 1% to around 29%. Important scholarship has demonstrated how racialized structures entrenched by colonialism and apartheid set the scene for the rapid unfolding of the AIDS pandemic, like other causes of ill-health before it. Of particular relevance is the legacy of circular male-migration, an institution that for much of the 20th century helped to propel the transmission of sexually transmitted infections among black South Africans denied permanent urban residence. But while the deep-rooted antecedents of AIDS have been noted, less attention has been given to more recent changes in the political economy of sex, including those resulting from the post-apartheid government's adoption of broadly neo-liberal policies. As an unintentional consequence, male migration and apartheid can be seen as almost inevitably resulting in AIDS, a view that can disconnect the pandemic from contemporary social and economic debates. Combining ethnographic, historical, and demographic approaches, and focusing on sexuality in the late apartheid and early post-apartheid periods, this article outlines three interlinked dynamics critical to understanding the scale of the AIDS pandemic: (1) rising unemployment and social inequalities that leave some groups, especially poor women, extremely vulnerable; (2) greatly reduced marital rates and the subsequent increase of one person households; and (3) rising levels of women's migration, especially through circular movements between rural areas and informal settlements/urban areas. As a window into these changes, the article gives primary attention to the country's burgeoning informal settlements spaces in which HIV rates are reported to be twice the national average and to connections between poverty and money/sex exchanges. Keywords: South Africa; AIDS; Health inequalities; Sexuality; Gender

Links between AIDS and self-injection of drugs were first recognized more than 20 years ago, but identification of a specific pathogen and ways to neutralize it has not led to complete success in preventing transmission of HIV-1 infection among injecting drug users (IDUs). A street ethnographer identified active risk locales (places where IDUs go to inject drugs) and recruited their proprietors into a study of contaminated injection paraphernalia. Collected paraphernalia from locales were analyzed for contamination by HIV-1 using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Proprietors and clientele of 16 risk locales participated by contributing used paraphernalia and/or agreeing to a blood test (0.5-1 mL drawn by finger stick). Real-time PCR was the primary measure used to determine contamination of injection paraphernalia and blood samples with HIV-1. Of 130 samples collected at baseline, a total of 8 were found to have evidence of HIV-1 contamination by detection of either HIV-1 RNA or DNA. The most serious contamination (up to 600,000 copies per milliliter) was found in ancillary paraphernalia, rather than needle/syringe (N/S) specimens. Only 4 of 74 N/S specimens had any evidence of HIV-1 contamination at all (with very low viral loads), and none had both HIV-1 DNA and RNA. Although IDUs in risk locales in Miami/Dade appear to be taking care of their N/S with regard to contamination by HIV-1, important evidence of contamination in ancillary paraphernalia, especially cookers and cottons, indicates that IDUs may still incur serious risk regardless of how well they care for their N/S. Our observations indicated that IDUs rinsed their N/S before returning them to the proprietors, from whom we eventually collected them, and this rinsing would have masked the contamination to which they were exposed through use of unrinsed cookers and reused cottons.

We examine epidemiological and demographic data documenting the HIV/ AIDS epidemic in the Deep South region of the United States. These data document substantial increases in AIDS cases in the Deep South from 2000 to 2003. In contrast, other US regions are experiencing stable rates or small increases in new AIDS cases. Furthermore, the AIDS epidemic in the Deep South is more concentrated than in other regions among African Americans, women, and rural residents. The Deep South also has some of the highest levels of poverty and uninsured individuals, factors that complicate the prevention and treatment of HIV infection. Further research is needed to determine the cause of the disproportionate rise in AIDS incidence and to develop effective means of preventing HIV infection and providing care of those infected in this region. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.063149

This brief paper is the introduction to this JEMS special issue on Migration and Health in Southern Africa, drawn from papers presented at a conference organised by the Transnational Communities [...]

Objectives. We assessed relationships between sociodemographic characteristics and mental health status and knowledge of, being worried about, and stigmatization of 2 emerging infectious diseases: AIDS and SARS. Methods. We conducted a random-digit-dialed survey of 928 residents of the New York City metropolitan area as part of a study of the effects of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Questions added for this study concerned respondents' knowledge of, worry about, and support of stigmatizing actions to control AIDS and SARS. Results. In general, respondents with greater personal resources (income, education, social support) and better mental health status had more knowledge, were less worried, and were less likely to stigmatize. This pattern held for both AIDS and SARS. Conclusions. Personal resources and mental health factors are likely to influence the public's ability to learn about, rationally appraise the threat of, and minimize stigmatization of emerging infectious diseases such as AIDS and SARS.

Chemokines are a family of small chemoattractant cytokines that have an important role in controlling leukocyte migration. The finding that some chemokines and their receptors are upregulated in both acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, and that they are key players in the development of AIDS, has provided the pharmaceutical industry with new targets for therapeutic intervention in these diseases. Although the chemokine system shows apparent redundancy in vitro, target validation is possible largely through expression studies in human disease tissues and the use of transgenic and knockout mice as disease models. Several approaches are being developed to block the effects of chemokines, including small-molecule antagonists of chemokine receptors, modified chemokines and antibodies directed against chemokine receptors. Here, we describe the rationale behind these different approaches, the pitfalls that have been encountered and future perspectives.

The effects of HIV concordance and discordance on marital life are examined with reference to the in-depth interviews conducted with seven couples from Mumbai, India. Thematic analysis of their narratives revealed the influence of HIV concordance and discordance on the spousal relationship, sexual functioning, family formation, care and support, and the future of the family.

The purpose of this ethnographic study was to conduct an exploratory research investigation examining the phenomenon of barebacking among men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM) on the Internet. The researchers selected a case sample of 100 MSM advertisers on an Internet bareback sex site to assess HIV transmission risk as related to HIV serostatus, partner selection, and sexual risk-taking. The data suggest that while intentionally seeking to transmit or contract HIV was extremely rare, a small proportion of advertisers appeared to be relatively indifferent to HIV transmission. However, the great majority of advertisers for bareback sex appeared to practice 'sero-sorting' or seroconcordant behavior by HIV status with potential sexual partners as a strategy to minimize HIV transmission risk. KEYWORDS. AIDS, anal sex, barebacking, bisexual men, gay men, HIV, homosexuality, Internet, men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM), safer sex, seroconcordant, serodiscordant, sero-sorting, STI

This study examines conceptual understandings, definitions, and practices of barebacking in a sample of 227 gay and bisexual men recruited from four gay venues in the New York Metropolitan area. Findings demonstrated that 21% of the participants identified as HIV-negative (HIV-) and 61.7% as HIV-positive (HIV+). While 90% of the sample was familiar with the term 'barebacking,' differences were noted in conceptual understandings and practices of barebacking between HIV+ and HIV- men. In particular, the findings suggest that these men were more likely to socialize and have sex with seroconcordant partners and that these patterns of socialization may shape attitudes and practices about barebacking. KEYWORDS. AIDS, anal sex, barebacking, bisexual, gay, HIV, homosexuality, men who have sex with men (MSM), oral sex, sexual practices, unsafe sex

Current epidemiological trends demonstrate that Black and Latino men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM) have increasingly disproportionate rates of HIV. The emergence of barebacking (intentional unprotected anal intercourse) and club drug use (cocaine, methamphetamine, GHB, ecstasy, ketamine) have posed a significant public health threat for MSM. This formative, behavioral multi-method investigation aims to examine barebacking, club drug use, and meanings of sex in Black and Latino gay and bisexual (BLGB) men. The data were drawn from the baseline assessment of a larger-scale longitudinal investigation (N = 450) of club drug use in gay and bisexual men from the New York Metropolitan area recruited from mainstream gay venues, AIDS service organizations, and public/commercial sex environments. Findings demonstrated that Black and Latino men were more likely to report an HIV-positive serostatus and identify as bisexual. Significant racial/ethnic differences were demonstrated in the use of club drugs. HIV-positive men reported significantly more frequent barebacking with HIV-positive partners. Latino men of HIV unknown status perceived greater benefits of barebacking. The qualitative data suggested specific cultural and phenomenological meanings ascribed to the act of bareback sex, club drug use, and the intersection of these behaviors. KEYWORDS. African-American, AIDS, Black men, barebacking, bisexual men, club drugs, cocaine, drug use, ecstasy, gay men, GHB, HIV, homosexuality, ketamine, Latino men, men-who-have-sex-with-men, methamphetamine, sexual behavior, unprotected anal intercourse, unsafe sex

Barebacking (intentional unprotected anal sex) represents a significant threat to the health of gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM), which is not well defined and understood. Despite a relative lack of research on this issue, most MSM have heard of barebacking, and a substantial minority has had bareback sex. Individual reasons and six community-level influences that may have contributed to the emergence of barebacking are reviewed: (1) improvements in HIV treatment, (2) more complex sexual decision-making, (3) the Internet, (4) substance use, (5) safer sex fatigue, and (6) changes in HIV prevention programs. The implications of barebacking for HIV prevention are discussed, and suggestions for future research are offered. KEYWORDS. Barebacking, bisexual, gay, HIV/AIDS prevention, homosexuality, human immunodeficiency virus, MSM, psychosexual behavior, safer sex, sexual risk taking, STI

Data from an experiment embedded in a national telephone survey of heterosexual, English-speaking U.S. adults (N = 1,283) were used to examine the relationship between manifestations of symbolic stigma and erroneous beliefs about AIDS transmission. Each respondent was presented with three scenarios describing a hypothetical sexual encounter between a protagonist and an HIV-negative or HIV-positive partner in which condoms were or were not used. The partner's gender and the protagonist's gender and sexual orientation were experimentally manipulated. Nearly all respondents knew that AIDS could be contracted through unprotected sex with a person with AIDS. A substantial minority erroneously believed it could be contracted through sex with an uninfected partner, and significantly more respondents believed that a homosexual or bisexual man who had sex with another (uninfected) man risked contracting AIDS compared to respondents who were asked about a heterosexual encounter. Inaccurate beliefs about HIV transmission through unprotected sex were predicted by socioeconomic status (lower educational level and income), gender (being female), race (being black), religiosity, personal concern about contracting AIDS, and lack of knowledge about HIV transmission through casual contact. With other variables statistically controlled, sexual prejudice was a significant predictor of inaccurate beliefs about HIV transmission through protected sex but not unprotected sex.

As HIV/AIDS continues to ravage sub-Saharan Africa, questions about the demographic effects of the pandemic have become more pronounced. In addition to the suffering and mortality of those afflicted with [...]

An overview of the relation between migration to the United States and AIDS cases in Mexico and study to evaluate the impact of international migration on distribution of infected persons is described. Attention to migrants in binominal contexts requires information exchange agreements on migrants living with HIV/AIDS.

AS MEDICAL SCIENCE presses forward to find a cure for HIV--and as we mark the thirtieth anniversary of the discovery of HIV as the cause of AIDS--it's useful in the [...]

A survey of black and white South African women university students, aged 21-25, using Hollway's interpretative discourse analysis to find the role of sexual difference in introducing safe sex practices, revealed that women were hesitant to introduce the topic to their partners out of fear of angering them because AIDS is associated with homosexuality. Black women resisted this through ideas derived from anti-apartheid movements, and white women through the influence of feminism. Power differences between the sexes exists because men detach themselves from the emotional aspect and women have to take responsibility.

The interaction between cyclophilins (CyPs) A and B and the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Gag polyprotein Pr55-gag plays an important role in acquired immunodeficiency syndrowe (AIDS) immunopathology. CyPs play a significant role in directing proteins to proper locations within cells.

Researchers show that the phospholipids in the envelope of HIV-1RF and HIV-2-L are alike, but are unlike their related host cell surface membranes. The cholesterol-to-phospholipid molar ratio of the viral envelop is around 2.5 times that of the host cell surface membranes. HIV-1 and HIV-2-L choose particular lipid domains in the surface membrane of their host cells through which to appear during viral maturation.

The Centers for Disease Control and the New York State's Commission of Health are accused of producing AIDS virus test results that are deliberately misleading. The government health agencies refused to attach any importance to the view that African Swine Fever Virus may largely be the cause of AIDS.

Among the earliest research conducted on the etiology of AIDS was Jane Teas' studies on the African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV). The Centers for Disease Control undertook with reservations further studies on ASFV, but ceased when Robert Gallo and Myron Essex discovered the Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus.

The United States Department of Agriculture and the Pan American Health Organization relate AIDS to gay persons. Dr. Jane Teas and others dispute the results by pointing to the African swine fever virus as the culprit. They argue that AIDS has been related to homosexuality for political reasons.

This article reviews and analyzes the available data on AIDS cases related to intravenous drug abuse in Canada. About 2.9% of Canadian AIDS cases were associated with drug abuse. Although only 120 cases are involved, Canada ranks about seventh in the world in AIDS cases related to drug abuse. In addition, the true number of cases may be under-reported. The low rate is probably due to the low rates of use of injectable illicit drugs. However, more research on these issues is needed. Also, effective prevention programs for drug abuse and needle sharing are needed as the HIV-AIDS rate among drug abusers could increase rapidly.

The increase in AIDS among heterosexuals is partly due to IV drug use. Thirty-two percent of AIDS cases up to June, 1991 have been linked to drug use. Zidovudine treatment of HIV-positive pregnant women is suggested from labor to delivery and for their newborns can reduce the incidence of HIV-infected babies. Vaginal birth after cesarean delivery has more than tripled between 1985 and 1992 from 6.6% to 25.4%. Ninety-four percent of 120 patients with small ectopic pregnancy were effectively treated with intramuscular methotrexate sodium, with no side effects. Hormone replacement therapy after menopause using progesterone and estrogen can reduce heart disease and osteoporosis. There may be a chance of breast cancer; however, one long-term study found no increase in breast cancer from using hormone replacement therapy.