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Conservation plans that explicitly account for the social landscape where people and wildlife co‐occur can yield more effective and equitable conservation practices and outcomes. Yet, social data remain underutilized, often because social data are treated as aspatial or are analyzed with approaches that do not quantify uncertainty or address bias in self‐reported data. We conducted a survey (questionnaires) of 177 households in a multiuse landscape in the Kenya–Tanzania borderlands. In a mixed‐methods approach, we used Bayesian hierarchical models to quantify and map local attitudes toward African elephant (Loxodonta africana) conservation while accounting for response bias and then combined inference from attitude models with thematic analysis of open‐ended responses and cointerpretation of results with local communities to gain deeper understanding of what explains attitudes of people living with wildlife. Model estimates showed that believing elephants have sociocultural value increased the probability of respondents holding positive attitudes toward elephant conservation in general (mean increase = 0.31 [95% credible interval, CrI, 0.02–0.67]), but experiencing negative impacts from any wildlife species lowered the probability of respondents holding a positive attitude toward local elephant conservation (mean decrease = −0.20 [95% CrI −0.42 to 0.03]). Qualitative data revealed that safety and well‐being concerns related to the perceived threats that elephants pose to human lives and livelihoods, and limited incentives to support conservation on community and private lands lowered positive local attitude probabilities and contributed to negative perceptions of human–elephant coexistence. Our spatially explicit modeling approach revealed fine‐scale variation in drivers of conservation attitudes that can inform targeted conservation planning. Our results suggest that approaches focused on sustaining existing sociocultural values and relationships with wildlife, investing in well‐being, and implementing species‐agnostic approaches to wildlife impact mitigation could improve conservation outcomes in shared landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we aimed to achieve three objectives: (1) to precisely characterize the body plans of Elephantidae and other large herbivorous mammals; (2) based on this analysis, to determine whether the body plans of the extinct woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) and steppe mammoth (M. trogontherii) differ from those of modern‐day Elephantidae: the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), the African bush (Loxodonta africana), and forest (L. cyclotis) elephants; (3) to analyze how the body plans have changed in extant perissodactyls and proboscideans compared with their Paleogene ancestors. To accomplish this, we studied mammoth skeletons from the collections of Russian museums and compared this data with a large number of skeletons of extant elephantids, odd‐toed, and even‐toed ungulates, as well as their extinct relatives. We showed that three genera of Elephantidae are characterized by a homogeneous body plan, which is markedly different from other large herbivores. Elephantids break the interrelationship, that exists in artiodactyls and perissodactyls, between the total length of the head and neck on one side and the limb's segments on the other. Their limbs are very tall (inferior in this regard among large ungulates only to the giraffe), and, contrary to the other large herbivorous mammals, elongated due to the length of the proximal segments. This allows them to effectively utilize the principle of inverted pendulum (straight‐legged walking) in locomotion. The biggest differences in the body plan of mammoths compared with extant elephants are a markedly larger pelvis, elongated fore‐ and hindlimbs (due to the increased relative length of their proximal segments), and different proportions of the skull. The body plans of plesiomorphic Paleogene proboscideans and perissodactyls differed markedly from their descendants in every body part; these differences are related, on the one hand, to the allometric growth, and on the other hand, to the advancement of the locomotor apparatus in the course of their evolution. The most notable difference in the body plan between Paleogene proboscidean Moeritherium and extant Elephantidae is the ~2‐fold increase in relative limb height. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This paper presents a way to automate computer vision processes applied to behavior recognition on closed-circuit television (CCTV) footage of two captive African elephants. Object detection software using both Create ML and DeepLabCut was used to control the accuracy of using such models, and those models were subsequently used to analyze seven days' worth of nighttime footage to assess the general behavioral patterns of the elephants, showcasing the possibility of using automated tools for behavioral analysis. This study investigates the possibility of using machine learning models created in DeepLabCut and Create ML to automate aspects of behavioral coding and aid in behavioral analysis. Two models with different capabilities and complexities were constructed and compared to a manually observed control period. The accuracy of the models was assessed by comparison with manually scoring, before being applied to seven nights of footage of the nocturnal behavior of two African elephants (Loxodonta africana). The resulting data were used to draw conclusions regarding behavioral differences between the two elephants and between individually observed nights, thus proving that such models can aid researchers in behavioral analysis. The models were capable of tracking simple behaviors with high accuracy, but had certain limitations regarding detection of complex behaviors, such as the stereotyped behavior sway, and displayed confusion when deciding between visually similar behaviors. Further expansion of such models may be desired to create a more capable aid with the possibility of automating behavioral coding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landscape connectivity operates at a variety of scales, depending on the geography of the area in question and the focal species or ecological process under consideration.Most connectivity studies, however, are typically focused on a single scale, which in the case of resistance‐based connectivity modelling, is often the entire landscape or protected area (PA) network. This large, single‐scale focus may miss areas that are important for connectivity at smaller scales and that can be documented via observed animal movements without resorting to landscape‐wide statistical modelling and extrapolation approaches.Here, we characterize landscape connectivity at three different scales (local/micro, inter‐PA, and landscape‐wide/macro), using observed animal movements rather than conventional resistance surface models, to produce a connectivity conservation blueprint for African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Kavango‐Zambezi transfrontier conservation area (KAZA) in southern Africa. This analysis is based on an extensive, high‐resolution GPS tracking database comprising approximately 4 million GPS locations from nearly 300 tagged elephants and their associated herds.Our results show that high‐fidelity elephant use of micro‐corridors is typically—though not exclusively—related to directed movements towards water, often amidst heavy anthropogenic presence. Movement pathways that connected KAZA's core protected areas were longer and variable, with some channelled into narrow areas of use and others more dispersed across larger sub‐landscapes. At the largest scale, a network analysis incorporating all used landscape grid cells revealed several clusters of large‐scale movement corridors that connected distant parts of KAZA.Synthesis and applications: Our three scales of analyses reveal disparate geographical priorities for connectivity conservation that collectively could help ensure the functional connectivity of KAZA for its largest inhabitants. Each scale will require its own set of inter‐related conservation interventions, while further research into areas with sparse data collection, and other species of conservation concern, could reveal additional connectivity priorities at each scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neighbouring plants can alter the susceptibility of high‐quality focal plants to herbivores by affecting herbivore patch choice. Herbivores can use plant odour to make patch‐scale foraging decisions from afar, but the actual information they rely on within complex plant odours is rarely defined. Revealing the information enabling patch choice by herbivores will provide the mechanistic link underpinning associational effects of plant neighbours arising from these foraging decisions. Here, our first aim was to test whether odour cues alone enable a mammalian herbivore to make patch choice decisions leading to predictable associational effects of neighbours on high‐quality focal plants. Our second aim was then to test whether artificial odour, designed to mimic the informative odour component within the whole odour profile of low‐quality neighbours, is as effective as real plants in influencing patch choice and associational refuge. We tested patch choice by African elephants, Loxodonta africana using a giant Y‐maze and real or artificial plant odours as the only cues for the neighbours of a high‐quality focal plant. We quantified the probability of various odour treatments being chosen in comparison with the odour of a focal plant alone. Compared with focal plants alone, we found that elephants were more likely to choose patches with the focal plant plus high‐quality neighbours of the same or different species, but less likely to choose patches with the focal plant plus low‐quality neighbours. We also demonstrated that an artificial subset of odours, designed to be informative, were as effective as real low‐quality neighbours in influencing patch choice and hence associational refuge to the focal plant. Our results demonstrate a key role of plant odour—and specifically informative components within complex odour profiles—in patch choice decisions by a mammalian herbivore, leading to plant associational effects on high‐quality focal plants. Understanding what olfactory information herbivores use when deciding which patches to visit or avoid, and how it affects focal plant susceptibility is important ecologically. Non‐random patch choice will not only affect individual fitness of herbivores, but also shape plant community dynamics through impacting plant survival and recruitment. Furthermore, artificially re‐creating odour information could offer a new tool to influence herbivore foraging decisions, with implications for wildlife management and conservation, including plant protection. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among factors that threaten wild populations of African megafauna, wildlife trade has gained prominence as a global policy issue, with concerted international campaigns aiming to influence the trade of species such as elephants, rhinos and lions. Trade policy is strongly contested, confounding attempts to develop coherent approaches across jurisdictions and through international mechanisms such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This undermines conservation efforts. Understanding the drivers of such conflict may help to address this problem.Scholars of political science increasingly recognise the power of ideas as drivers within policy processes. Guided by this literature, we developed an analytical framework and conducted a thematic analysis to examine the ideas driving wildlife trade policy conflict. Our nested case study approach examined debates over trade policy toward African elephants, rhinos and lions at two levels: the international policy arena of CITES and within a single country, South Africa. Informed by earlier literature, we tracked the evolution of international trade policy debates over a 4‐year period (2016–2019) and analysed submissions to a national policy review process in South Africa that took place during 2020.During the study period, state and non‐state actors contributed to vigorous trade policy debates within seven key thematic issues across the case study species. Arguments were driven by both cognitive ideas, which specify cause‐and‐effect relationships, and normative ideas, which are values‐based and especially salient elements of anti‐trade stances.Fusing these cognitive and normative ideational elements, we identified three distinct overarching narratives relating to wildlife trade policy. These three narratives align with broader environmental policy and political narratives and elucidate inherent tensions within the CITES arena. They also reveal differing ethical interpretations and perceptions of risk and precaution.Policy implications. Wildlife trade policy conflict is driven at least in part by competing ideological visions, which may be entrenched by the CITES Appendix listing system. The structural role of CITES in perpetuating this polarisation—and the consequences thereof—warrants further research. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores various methods for tracing the geographic origin of illegally traded wildlife. It discusses the use of trade records, elemental signatures, and molecular genetics analysis as means to determine the source of confiscated animals and their products. The article emphasizes the importance of combining these approaches and establishing comprehensive databases to improve traceability and combat illegal trade. It also suggests the need for global action programs to reduce consumer demand, strengthen law enforcement measures, and promote sustainable alternatives to wildlife products in order to prevent the illegal wildlife trade and conserve biodiversity. [Extracted from the article]

The African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana) is an ecosystem engineer essential in determining the structure and vegetation abundance in mesic dry protected areas such as the Mana Pools National Park (MNP) in Zimbabwe. Understanding the interactions between elephants and vegetation structure is essential for effective conservation and management of savannah ecosystems. Conservation efforts often aim to balance elephant populations with the carrying capacity of their habitats to ensure the sustainability of both flora and fauna within protected areas. Therefore understanding how African savannah elephants influence vegetation structure, abundance and damage is critical for adaptive ecosystem management and wildlife conservation in mesic savannah ecosystems. This study assessed: (i) vegetation structure, (ii) abundance and (iii) evidence of elephant‐induced vegetation damage near a distance gradient to water points in MNP. A generalised linear model (GLM) was used to investigate the relationship between vegetation aspects that is structure, abundance and evidence of damage with distance from water sources. In the mesic protected MNP where African savannah elephants predominate, the modelled vegetation shape, abundance and damage exhibit spatial differences on a distant gradient towards water sources (χ2, p < 0.05). There is need for implementation of comparably, less costly, homogenous conservation measures for African savannah elephants across the artificial water pans in the MNP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) are key ecosystem engineers that migrate over large spatiotemporal scales foraging as they require copious amounts of food and water across habitable landscapes. Therefore a need to understand movement patterns arises in relation to vegetation type and landscape variability, moreso in forage depauparate arid areas such as Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) in Zimbabwe. The objectives of this study were to: (i) assess the performance of vegetation indices in modelling the distribution of African savannah elephants, and (ii) model future landscape variability in Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) in Zimbabwe. Maximum entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm was used to explore the relationship between vegetation indices and distribution of African savannah elephants in the GNP. The Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) performs better relative to other indices in modelling the distribution of African savannah elephants across all habitat types in the GNP. Cellular automata‐Artificial Neural Network (CA‐ANN) showed a significant future decrease (Kruskal Anova; p < 0.05) in landscape suitable to sustain large populations of African savannah elephants in the GNP by the year 2083. Future remote sensing reveals directional insights into the future consequences of current landscape management for African savannah elephant conservation which is a crucial in the sustainability of climate threatened arid protected areas such as the GNP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review aims to illustrate the status and distribution of African elephant in Eastern Africa. The source of data for this review was secondary data including published articles, books, Master theses, PhD dissertations and unpublished literatures. The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the largest living terrestrial mammal on the earth and perhaps one of the most intelligent. They are present in 50 countries, 13 of which are in Asia and 37 in Africa. The total estimation of elephant in Africa is 472,269, with 29.1% in the Eastern Africa. In recent report, African elephant in South Africa holds approximately 42%, followed by Eastern Africa with 28%, Central Africa with 25%, and West Africa with 5%. As a result of illegal hunting, African elephant in Eastern Africa declined by 62 percent from 2006 to 2013. Largely attributed decrease in Tanzania. However, the number of African elephants in south Sudan has been increase but there is no longer a resident elephant in Somalia. To sustain African elephant, first and foremost requirement is identifying and assessing its population status and distribution across targeted areas. Therefore, this review is important to realize sustainable management approaches for African elephant in Eastern Africa by understanding their status and distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across Africa, space for conservation is sometimes limited to formally protected areas that have become progressively more isolated. There is a need for targeted conservation initiatives such as the demarcation of landscape connections, defined as areas that encompass environmental variables that promote the natural movement of individuals between populations, which can facilitate gene flow. Landscape connections can mitigate genetic isolation, genetic drift, and inbreeding, which can occur in isolated populations in protected areas. Promoting gene flow can reduce the risk of extirpation often associated with isolated populations. Here we develop and test models for identifying landscape connections among African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana) populations by combining habitat suitability modeling with gene flow estimates across a large region including seven countries. We find a pronounced non-linear response to unsuitable habitat, consistent with previous studies showing that non-transformed habitat models are poor predictors of gene flow. We generated a landscape connections map that considers both suitable habitats based on telemetry occurrence data and gene flow estimated as the inverse of individual genetic distance, delineating areas that are important for maintaining elephant population connectivity. Our approach represents a novel framework for developing spatially and genetically informed conservation strategies for elephants and many other taxa distributed across heterogeneous and fragmented landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review aims to illustrate the status and distribution of African elephant in Eastern Africa. The source of data for this review was secondary data including published articles, books, Master theses, PhD dissertations and unpublished literatures. The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the largest living terrestrial mammal on the earth and perhaps one of the most intelligent. They are present in 50 countries, 13 of which are in Asia and 37 in Africa. The total estimation of elephant in Africa is 472,269, with 29.1% in the Eastern Africa. In recent report, African elephant in South Africa holds approximately 42%, followed by Eastern Africa with 28%, Central Africa with 25%, and West Africa with 5%. As a result of illegal hunting, African elephant in Eastern Africa declined by 62 percent from 2006 to 2013. Largely attributed decrease in Tanzania. However, the number of African elephants in south Sudan has been increase but there is no longer a resident elephant in Somalia. To sustain African elephant, first and foremost requirement is identifying and assessing its population status and distribution across targeted areas. Therefore, this review is important to realize sustainable management approaches for African elephant in Eastern Africa by understanding their status and distribution.

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) play a significant role in the modification of their habitat, foremost by decreasing woody vegetation cover and density. Little is known regarding the effects of elephant habitat disturbance (EHD) on medium-to-large mammal and bird communities. While the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH) predicts species richness and diversity will be maximised in areas of moderate EHD, high levels of EHD could result in habitat degradation and negatively impact certain wildlife communities. To examine this relationship, we compared mammal and avian community assemblages, richness, and diversity across differing severities (low, medium, high) of elephant disturbed habitats (woodland, shrubland, and mixed wood/shrubland) within Rukinga Wildlife Sanctuary (RWS) in south-eastern Kenya. From June–November 2022, we collected wildlife detection data via driving transects and surveyed EHD through observation of elephant tree damage. While EHD level did impact community assemblage, possibly through vegetation modification and/or increased habitat heterogeneity, EHD had no negative impacts on species richness and diversity in the three habitat types. In contrast to our IDH prediction, richness and diversity were highest in high EHD areas within shrubland habitat and showed no difference across EHD levels for the other two habitats. Overall, this study provides evidence that elephants in RWS are not disturbing habitats to an extent that negatively impacts sanctuary viability, and at least for shrub habitat appear to enhance it. Additionally, smaller wildlife habitats may be able to mitigate lasting elephant overpopulation damages through increased connectivity to other protected areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African savanna elephants are a highly mobile species that ranges widely across the diversity of ecosystems they inhabit. In xeric environments, elephant movement patterns are largely dictated by the availability of water and suitable forage resources, which can drive strong seasonal changes in their movement behavior. In this study, we analyzed a unique movement dataset from 43 collared elephants, collected over a period of 10 years, to assess the degree to which seasonal changes influences home range size of elephants in the semi‐arid, Laikipia‐Samburu ecosystem of northern Kenya. Auto‐correlated Kernel Density Estimation (AKDE) was used to estimate elephants' seasonal home range size. For each individual elephant, we also calculated seasonal home range shifts, as the distance between wet season home range centroids and dry season home range centroids. Core areas (50% AKDE isopleths) of all individual elephants ranged from 3 to 1743 km2 whereas total home range sizes (the 95% AKDE isopleths) ranged between 15 and 10,677 km2. Core areas and home range sizes were 67% and 61% larger, respectively, during the wet season than during the dry season. On average, the core area centroids for all elephants were 17 km away from the nearest river (range 0.2–150.3 km). Females had their core areas closer to the river than males (13.5 vs. 27.5 km). Females differed from males in their response to seasonal variation. Specifically, females tended to occupy areas farther from the river during the wet season, while males occupied areas further from the river during the dry season. Our study highlights how elephants adjust their space use seasonally, which can be incorporated into conservation area planning in the face of increased uncertainty in rainfall patterns due to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple species of the elephant fishes (Mormyridae) commonly coexist in sympatry in most African tropical rivers and lakes. In this study, we investigated the trophic ecology and potential trophic niche partitioning of eleven mormyrid fish species from the Sanaga River system in Cameroon using the stable isotope composition of carbon and nitrogen in the muscle samples. Albeit most mormyrids mainly feed on invertebrates, we found differences in isotope ratios, and we report signs of the trophic niche partitioning among species. We further found significant differences in isotopic signatures within the Mormyrus genus, suggesting ecological niche diversification among three closely related species. We have also evaluated differences in the isotopic signals between seasons in four species, which could be possibly caused by species migration and/or anthropogenic agricultural activities. To evaluate body shape, we applied geometric morphometric analyses, and we show that most of the species are clearly morphologically separated. We focused on the mormyrid ecomorphology to identify a possible interaction between shape and ecology, and we found a relationship between the δ13C (but not δ15N) isotopic signal and morphology, suggesting their interplay during mormyrid evolution. Overall, we present robust evidence of the trophic niche partitioning within the mormyrid species community, and we integrate trophic ecology with morphometrics, shedding light on the enigmatic evolutionary history of these fascinating African fishes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the largest terrestrial animal on Earth and is found primarily in Southern and Eastern Africa. It is a hindgut, colonic fermenter and subsists on a diet of raw plant materials found in its grazing area. In this study the bacterial, archaeal and fungal populations of seven African savanna elephant fecal metagenomes were first characterized using amplicon sequencing. On the genus level it was observed that the p‐1088‐a5 gut group in the bacteriome, Methanocorpusulum and Methanobrevibacter in the archaeome and Alternaria, Aurobasidium, Didymella and Preussia in the mycome, predominated. Subsequently, metagenomic shotgun sequencing was employed to identify possible functional pathways and carbohydrate‐active enzymes (CAZymes). Carbohydrate catabolic pathways represented the main degradation pathways, and the fecal metagenome was enriched in the glycohydroside (GH) class of CAZymes. Additionally, the top GH families identified – GH43, GH2, GH13 and GH3 – are known to be associated with cellulytic, hemicellulytic and pectolytic activities. Finally, the CAZymes families identified in the African savanna elephant were compared with those found in the Asian elephant and it was demonstrated that there is a unique repository of CAZymes that could be leveraged in the biotechnological context such as the degradation of lignocellulose for the production of second‐generation biofuels and energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Human modification of landscapes poses a significant threat to wildlife, particularly in Africa where population growth and land conversion are expected to increase. Habitat loss and fragmentation have led to declines in wildlife populations, highlighting the need to identify and preserve critical habitats, including core use areas and connectivity between them. Most recently, the identification of habitat corridors has become a key objective. Objectives: Our study objectives are to (1) empirically quantify connectivity across the Kunene—Etosha landscape in Northwestern Namibia using GPS tracking data on wild African elephants, and (2) assess the landscape features (i.e., geologic, biotic, and human-made) influencing connectivity and corridor types (e.g., fast movement corridors versus slow multi-use movement corridors). Methods: We used GPS telemetry data from 66 elephants collared in Northwestern Namibia to empirically quantify connectivity using a graph theoretic approach and assess landscape features influencing connectivity. Based on the ‘movescape’ approach, we identify different types of corridors and examined how landscape features differed across these corridors using multiple regression models on locations classified into different types of use categories by machine learning algorithms. Results: Our results revealed strong variation in connectivity across the landscape, with paths of high connectivity near water sources between the study areas. We found that factors related to water sources and human presence primarily influenced connectivity. Water holes serve as hubs across the ecosystem for both male and female elephants with lower use areas peripheral to areas with water. Connectivity between Kunene and Etosha National Park was relatively rare among the collared elephants, but we highlight the key areas used to move between the two regions. Conclusion: Water was the key feature structuring space use, and human presence influenced connectivity between water points, highlighting the importance of landscape planning in relation to limited water sources and human activities. Our results suggest that focusing management efforts on areas where water is limited for both elephants and humans will be important to reduce conflict and maintain ecosystem connectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) is an effective remote sensing approach for sampling acoustically active animal species and is particularly useful for elusive, visually cryptic species inhabiting remote or inaccessible habitats. Key advantages of PAM are large spatial coverage and continuous, long‐term monitoring. In most cases, a signal detection algorithm is utilized to locate sounds of interest within long sequences of audio data. It is important to understand the demographic/contextual usage of call types when choosing a particular signal to use for detection. Sampling biases may result if sampling is restricted to subsets of the population, for example, when detectable vocalizations are produced only by a certain demographic class. Using the African forest elephant repertoire as a case study, we test for differences in call type usage among different age‐sex classes. We identified disproportionate usage by age‐sex class of four call types—roars, trumpets, rumbles, and combination calls. This differential usage of signals by demographic class has implications for the use of particular call types in PAM for this species. Our results highlight that forest elephant PAM studies that have used rumbles as target signals may have under‐sampled adult males. The addition of other call types to PAM frameworks may be useful to leverage additional population demographic information from these surveys. Our research exemplifies how an examination of a species' acoustic behavior can be used to better contextualize the data and results from PAM and to strengthen the resulting inference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the pharmacokinetics of famciclovir and its metabolite penciclovir following a single dose administered orally and rectally in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). ANIMALS: 15 African elephants (6 males and 9 females) of various ages. METHODS: Famciclovir (15 mg/kg) was administered orally or per rectum once, with at least a three-week washout period between administrations. Blood was collected at 13 different timepoints per administration for 6 elephants, occurring between February and March 2020. An additional 9 elephants were sampled at variable timepoints per administration utilizing a sparse sampling design between July 2020 and January 2021. Plasma famciclovir and penciclovir levels were measured via HPLC and fluorescence detection. Pharmacokinetic analysis was completed in the summer of 2021 using noncompartmental analysis and nonlinear mixed-effects modeling. RESULTS: Famciclovir was not detected in any sample, suggesting complete metabolism. Key pharmacokinetic parameters for penciclovir following oral administration were time to maximum concentration (tmax; 2.12 hours), area under the concentration-versus-time curve (AUC; 33.93 μg · h/mL), maximum observed concentration (Cmax; 3.73 μg/mL), and absorption half-life (t1/2; 0.65 hours). Following rectal administration, the values were: tmax, 0.65 hours; AUC, 15.62 μg·h/mL; Cmax, 2.52 μg/mL; and absorption t1/2, 0.13 hours. CONCLUSIONS: Famciclovir was rapidly metabolized to penciclovir. Oral administration resulted in slower absorption but higher maximum plasma concentration and higher AUC compared to rectal administration. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: African elephants administered famciclovir via oral and rectal routes resulted in measurable serum penciclovir, and these findings may be utilized by clinicians treating viral infections in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A nondestructive and practical approach using vibrational spectroscopy and chemometrics was developed to determine ivory provenance. • Geochemical conditions, elephant physiology, and diet alter ivory composition. • Collagen, water, and hydroxyapatite content in ivory drives this classification. • Ivory from African elephants had desirable mechanical properties making it a preferred carving material. • Knowledge of ivory provenance establishes artistic context and facilitates prevention of illegal ivory trade. Ivory trafficking is a multifaceted problem that has long endangered the fate of African and Asian elephants. In field investigations, it is essential to conduct ivory inspections in a nondestructive manner to prevent the inclusion of noncompliant materials. In this research, a practical approach to identify Asian and African elephants' ivories was developed using an integrated methodology of art history, vibrational spectroscopy, and chemometrics. Spectra were acquired by an FT-IR spectrometer and a fiber optics reflectance spectrometer (FORS) in the Vis-NIR region. The discriminant methods were calibrated with spectra acquired from Asian and African elephant ivory tusks and applied to historic ivory objects (n = 78) of uncertain origin. Models based on the chemometric methods Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Partial Least Squares -Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) were able to successfully classify ivory objects into Asian and African ivory, with an estimated true prediction rate (TPR) of 99 % both for African and Asian ivory samples. This study demonstrated the potential of FT-IR spectroscopy and FORS with chemometric methods as suitable tools for ivory investigations, aiding to the existing set of ivory trafficking prevention methods. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic utilization of woody vegetation by African savanna elephants may transform woodland vegetation to open savanna and threaten the extirpation of targeted species. This situation has arisen in Gonarezhou National Park (GNP), Zimbabwe, where a large elephant population (>2 km−2) threatens the persistence of the long‐lived baobab (Adansonia digitata) tree, through elevated mortality levels. This study investigated whether complete or partial refugia from elephant utilization existed for baobabs, and whether protection of trees by management, using wire netting or log‐ or rock‐packs around a tree base, had been effective. A total of 563 baobabs were sampled across northern GNP. Elephants had debarked 99% of trees to some degree, and gouged holes in the stem of 22% of trees. The probability, and severity, of debarking and gouging decreased with increasing distance to permanent water, increasing slope, and the amount of boulder cover. Slope gradient had the greatest effect on elephant impact, with trees located on steep slopes being less affected by elephants than those on flat ground. Distance to water had an effect despite the farthest tree, at 9 km from water, being within the 15 km foraging range of bull elephants. Large boulders partly protected trees even on gentle terrain. None of these factors provided a complete refuge from elephant impact within GNP, but, individually and collectively, provided a partial refuge at current elephant densities. Protection measures doubled tree survival over approximately 5 years, with fencing wire wrapped around baobab stems proving to be the most effective method. Assessment of the future security of baobabs in GNP requires knowledge of their distribution and that of the refugia provided by distance from permanent water, slope, and boulder cover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protected areas have been gazetted to protect natural resources and biodiversity, but evaluations of effectiveness rarely include measures of species population change. We compiled annual site‐level spending and elephant population data for 102 protected areas conserving either savannah (Loxodonta africana) or forest (Loxodonta cyclotis) elephants, which showed a median annual population decline of −0.78% across the protected areas. Site‐level population change was strongly associated with funding and government effectiveness. Annual funding deficits occurred in 78% of the protected areas, and when comparing necessary levels of annual spend to stabilize elephant populations, we estimate a US$1.5 billion annual funding deficit across all the protected areas. While financial investment can improve elephant conservation outcomes, there is still a need to identify where and how to best finance elephant poaching interventions, requiring a global commitment to improve the socioeconomic impacts of protected areas on local communities and reduce ivory demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group-living animals engage in coordinated vocalizations to depart from a location as a group, and often, to come to a consensus about the direction of movement. Here, we document for the first time, the use of coordinated vocalizations, the "let's go" rumble, in wild male African elephant group departures from a waterhole. We recorded vocalizations and collected behavioral data as known individuals engaged in these vocal bouts during June-July field seasons in 2005, 2007, 2011, and 2017 at Mushara waterhole within Etosha National Park, Namibia. During departure events, we documented which individuals were involved in the calls, the signature structure of each individual's calls, as well as the ordering of callers, the social status of the callers, and those who initiated departure. The "let's go" rumble was previously described in tight-knit family groups to keep the family together during coordinated departures. Male elephants are described as living in loose social groups, making this finding particularly striking. We found that this vocal coordination occurs in groups of closely associated, highly bonded individuals and rarely occurs between looser associates. The three individuals most likely to initiate the "let's go" rumble bouts were all highly socially integrated, and one of these individuals was also the most dominant overall. This finding suggests that more socially integrated individuals might be more likely to initiate, or lead, a close group of associates in the context of leaving the waterhole, just as a high-ranking female would do in a family group. The fact that many individuals were involved in the vocal bouts, and that departure periods could be shorter, longer, or the same amount of time as pre-departure periods, all suggest that there is consensus with regard to the act of leaving, even though the event was triggered by a lead individual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypervariable region sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene plays a critical role in microbial ecology by offering insights into bacterial communities within specific niches. While providing valuable genus-level information, its reliance on data from targeted genetic regions limits its overall utility. Recent advances in sequencing technologies have enabled characterisation of the full-length 16S rRNA gene, enhancing species-level classification. Although current short-read platforms are cost-effective and precise, they lack full-length 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing capability. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of a modified 150 bp paired-end full-length 16S rRNA amplicon short-read sequencing technique on the Illumina iSeq 100 and 16S rRNA amplicon assembly workflow by utilising a standard mock microbial community and subsequently performing exploratory characterisation of captive (zoo) and free-ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) respiratory microbiota. Our findings demonstrate that, despite generating assembled amplicons averaging 869 bp in length, this sequencing technique provides taxonomic assignments consistent with the theoretical composition of the mock community and respiratory microbiota of other mammals. Tentative bacterial signatures, potentially representing distinct respiratory tract compartments (trunk and lower respiratory tract) were visually identified, necessitating further investigation to gain deeper insights into their implication for elephant physiology and health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To conserve wide‐ranging species in degraded landscapes, it is essential to understand how the behavior of animals changes in relation to the degree and composition of modification. Evidence suggests that large inter‐individual variation exists in the propensity for use of degraded areas and may be driven by both behavioral and landscape factors. The use of cultivated lands by wildlife is of particular interest, given the importance of reducing human‐wildlife conflicts and understanding how such areas can function as biodiversity buffers. African elephant space use can be highly influenced by human activity and the degree to which individuals crop‐raid. We analyzed GPS data from 56 free‐ranging elephants in the Serengeti‐Mara Ecosystem using resource selection functions (RSFs) to assess how crop use may drive patterns of resource selection and space use within a population. We quantified drivers of similarity in resource selection across individuals using proximity analysis of individual RSF coefficients derived from random forest models. We found wide variation in RSF coefficient values between individuals indicating strongly differentiated resource selection strategies. Proximity assessment indicated the degree of crop use in the dry season, individual repeatability, and time spent in unprotected areas drove similarity in resource selection patterns. Crop selection was also spatially structured in relation to agricultural fragmentation. In areas with low fragmentation, elephants spent less time in crops and selected most strongly for crops further from protected area boundaries, but in areas of high fragmentation, elephants spent twice as much time in crops and selected most strongly for crops closer to the protected area boundary. Our results highlight how individual differences and landscape structure can shape use of agricultural landscapes. We discuss our findings in respect to the conservation challenges of human‐elephant conflict and incorporating behavioral variation into human‐wildlife coexistence efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep neural networks (DNN) have become a central method in ecology. To build and train DNNs in deep learning (DL) applications, most users rely on one of the major deep learning frameworks, in particular PyTorch or TensorFlow. Using these frameworks, however, requires substantial experience and time. Here, we present 'cito', a user‐friendly R package for DL that allows specifying DNNs in the familiar formula syntax used by many R packages. To fit the models, 'cito' takes advantage of the numerically optimized 'torch' library, including the ability to switch between training models on the CPU or the graphics processing unit (GPU) which allows the efficient training of large DNNs. Moreover, 'cito' includes many user‐friendly functions for model plotting and analysis, including explainable AI (xAI) metrics for effect sizes and variable importance. All xAI metrics as well as predictions can optionally be bootstrapped to generate confidence intervals, including p‐values. To showcase a typical analysis pipeline using 'cito', with its built‐in xAI features, we built a species distribution model of the African elephant. We hope that by providing a user‐friendly R framework to specify, deploy and interpret DNNs, 'cito' will make this interesting class of models more accessible to ecological data analysis. A stable version of 'cito' can be installed from the comprehensive R archive network (CRAN). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the escalating challenges in captive elephant management, the study of elephant reintegration emerges as a pivotal area of research, primarily addressing the enhancement of animal welfare. The term 'reintegration' refers to the process of rehabilitating captive elephants to a natural system, allowing them to roam freely without intensive human intervention. There is a relative paucity of research addressing the behavioural adaptations post-reintegration, despite reintegration of over 20 elephants across various fenced reserves in South Africa. Our study centres on two distinct herds of reintegrated African elephants, monitoring their movement patterns in two South African reserves over a 57-month period post-release. The primary goal of the study was to establish whether the flexibility and adaptability of movement behaviour of reintegrated elephants can be considered as one of the indicators of determining the success of such an operation. The second aim of our study was to investigate if the reintegrated elephants demonstrated an adaptability to their environment through their hourly, daily, and seasonal ranging patterns after a period of free roaming that exceeded 4 years. Our findings indicated that reintegrated elephants, much like their wild counterparts (movement based on literature), displayed notable seasonal and diurnal variations in key movement parameters, such as utilisation distribution areas and reserve utilization. These patterns changed over time, reflecting an adaptive shift in movement patterns after several years of free roaming. Notably, the trajectory of changes in movement parameters varied between herds, indicating unique adaptation responses, likely resulting from differences in the reintegration process (familiarity of reserve, season of release, presence of wild elephants). Although our study is constrained by the limited number of reintegrated herds available for analysis, it underscores the potential of captive elephants to successfully adapt to a free-living environment, emphasising the promising implications of reintegration initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Foot health is crucial for elephants, as pathological lesions of the feet are a leading cause of euthanasia in captive elephants, which are endangered species. Proper treatment of the feet, particularly in conditions affecting the digits and the digital cushion, requires a thorough understanding of the underlying anatomy. However, only limited literature exists due to the small population and the epidemiological foot diseases which often precludes many deceased elephants from scientific study. The aim of this study was to provide a detailed anatomical description of the blood supply to the African elephant's hindfoot. Methods: The healthy right hindlimb of a 19-year-old deceased female African savanna elephant was examined using computed tomography. Following a native sequence, 48 mL of barium-based contrast agent was injected into the caudal and cranial tibial arteries, and a subsequent scan was performed. The images were processed with 3D Slicer software. Results: The medial and lateral plantar arteries run in a symmetrical pattern. They each have a dorsal and a plantar branch, which reach the plantar skin before turning toward the axial plane of the sole to reach the digital cushion from the proximal direction. An accurate 3D model of the arteries and the bones of the foot, a set of labeled images and an animation of the blood supply have been created for ease of understanding. Discussion: In contrast to domestic ungulates, the digital cushion of the hindlimb is supplied differently from that of the forelimb. The lack of large vessels in its deeper layers indicates a slow regeneration time. This novel anatomical information may be useful in the planning of surgical interventions and in emergency medical procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Foot health is crucial for elephants, as pathological lesions of the feet are a leading cause of euthanasia in captive elephants, which are endangered species. Proper treatment of the feet, particularly in conditions affecting the digits and the digital cushion, requires a thorough understanding of the underlying anatomy. However, only limited literature exists due to the small population and the epidemiological foot diseases which often precludes many deceased elephants from scientific study. The aim of this study was to provide a detailed anatomical description of the blood supply to the African elephant's hindfoot. Methods: The healthy right hindlimb of a 19-year-old deceased female African savanna elephant was examined using computed tomography. Following a native sequence, 48 mL of barium-based contrast agent was injected into the caudal and cranial tibial arteries, and a subsequent scan was performed. The images were processed with 3D Slicer software. Results: The medial and lateral plantar arteries run in a symmetrical pattern. They each have a dorsal and a plantar branch, which reach the plantar skin before turning toward the axial plane of the sole to reach the digital cushion from the proximal direction. An accurate 3D model of the arteries and the bones of the foot, a set of labeled images and an animation of the blood supply have been created for ease of understanding. Discussion: In contrast to domestic ungulates, the digital cushion of the hindlimb is supplied differently from that of the forelimb. The lack of large vessels in its deeper layers indicates a slow regeneration time. This novel anatomical information may be useful in the planning of surgical interventions and in emergency medical procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African elephants have a wide range of abilities using their trunk. As a muscular hydrostat, and thanks to the two finger-like processes at its tip, this proboscis can both precisely grasp and exert considerable force by wrapping. Yet few studies have attempted to quantify its distal grasping force. Thus, using a device equipped with force sensors and an automatic reward system, the trunk tip pinch force has been quantified in five captive female African savanna elephants. Results showed that the maximum pinch force of the trunk was 86.4 N, which may suggest that this part of the trunk is mainly dedicated to precision grasping. We also highlighted for the first time a difference in force between the two fingers of the trunk, with the dorsal finger predominantly stronger than the ventral finger. Finally, we showed that the position of the trunk, particularly the torsion, influences its force and distribution between the two trunk fingers. All these results are discussed in the light of the trunk's anatomy, and open up new avenues for evolutionary reflection and soft robot grippers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many species communicate by combining signals into multimodal combinations. Elephants live in multi-level societies where individuals regularly separate and reunite. Upon reunion, elephants often engage in elaborate greeting rituals, where they use vocalisations and body acts produced with different body parts and of various sensory modalities (e.g., audible, tactile). However, whether these body acts represent communicative gestures and whether elephants combine vocalisations and gestures during greeting is still unknown. Here we use separation-reunion events to explore the greeting behaviour of semi-captive elephants (Loxodonta africana). We investigate whether elephants use silent-visual, audible, and tactile gestures directing them at their audience based on their state of visual attention and how they combine these gestures with vocalisations during greeting. We show that elephants select gesture modality appropriately according to their audience's visual attention, suggesting evidence of first-order intentional communicative use. We further show that elephants integrate vocalisations and gestures into different combinations and orders. The most frequent combination consists of rumble vocalisations with ear-flapping gestures, used most often between females. By showing that a species evolutionarily distant to our own primate lineage shows sensitivity to their audience's visual attention in their gesturing and combines gestures with vocalisations, our study advances our understanding of the emergence of first-order intentionality and multimodal communication across taxa. The article describes the greeting behaviour of elephants and provides an account of first-order intentionality and multicomponent signalling in an animal group other than primates, contributing to our understanding of social signalling in mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Megaherbivore carcasses represent sporadic but energetically rewarding resources for carnivores, offering a unique opportunity to study coexistence dynamics between facultative scavengers. South African fenced protected areas, such as Madikwe Game Reserve (Madikwe hereafter), host viable populations of large carnivores and high densities of elephants, Loxodonta africana. However, high carnivore densities can lead to potentially fatal interspecific encounters and increased competition, particularly around high‐quality trophic resources. This study explores the temporal partitioning and co‐detection strategies of carnivores at six elephant carcasses in Madikwe, aiming to understand how the increased carrion biomass available at elephant carcasses influences coexistence dynamics. Camera traps were deployed to monitor carcasses during two periods (2019 and 2020), revealing occurrences of six carnivore species. Carnivores, particularly black‐backed jackals, Lupulella mesomelas, (hereafter jackal), lions, Panthera leo, and spotted hyaenas, Crocuta crocuta, comprised 56.7% of carcass observations, highlighting their pivotal roles in scavenging dynamics. Pairwise co‐detection analysis demonstrated consistent association and shared peak activity periods between jackals and spotted hyaenas, indicating potential resource sharing. However, the minimal co‐detection rates between lions and other carnivores highlight their resource domination. There was some evidence of temporal partitioning between carnivores, with most species exhibiting earlier peaks in nocturnal activity to avoid temporal overlap with lions. This study emphasises the importance of elephant carcasses in the diet of multiple species and coexistence techniques utilised to exploit this ephemeral resource. As fenced protected areas become crucial for conserving intact carnivore guilds globally, further research into carnivore behavioural adaptations at carcasses is recommended to shed light on their coexistence strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of artificial water points for wildlife in African savannah ecosystems has been widely criticised for affecting the distribution of wildlife and initiating changes in the heterogeneity of natural landscapes. We examined the spatiotemporal variations in the landscape before and after the installation of an artificial water point by integrating the analysis of vegetation and soil spectral response patterns with a supervised learning random forest model between 2002 and 2022 in Chobe Enclave, Northern Botswana. Our results revealed that the study area is characterised by animal species such as Equus quagga, Aepyceros melampus, and Loxodonta africana. The findings also showed that the main vegetation species in the study area landscape include Combretum elaeagnoides, Vachellia luederitzii, and Combretum hereroense. The artificial water point induced disturbances on a drought-vulnerable landscape which affected vegetation heterogeneity by degrading the historically dominant vegetation cover types such as Colophospermum mopane, Dichrostachys cinerea, and Cynodon dactylon. The immediate years following the artificial water point installation demonstrated the highest spectral response patterns by vegetation and soil features attributed to intense landscape disturbances due to abrupt high-density aggregation of wildlife around the water point. Landscapes were strongly homogenised in later years (2022), as shown by overly overlapping spectral patterns owing to an increase in dead plant-based material and senescent foliage due to vegetation toppling and trampling. The landscape disturbances disproportionately affected mopane-dominated woodlands compared to other vegetation species as indicated by statistically significant land cover change obtained from a random forest classification. The woodlands declined significantly (p < 0.05) within 0–0.5 km, 0.5–1 km, 1–5 km, and 5–10 km distances after the installation of the water point. The results of this study indicate that continuous nonstrategic and uninformed use of artificial water points for wildlife will trigger ecological alterations in savannah ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among tetrapods, grasping is an essential function involved in many vital behaviours. The selective pressures that led to this function were widely investigated in species with prehensile hands and feet. Previous studies namely highlighted a strong effect of item properties but also of the species habitat on manual grasping behaviour. African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) are known to display various prehensile abilities and use their trunk in a large diversity of habitats. Composed of muscles and without a rigid structure, the trunk is a muscular hydrostat with great freedom of movement. This multitasking organ is particularly recruited for grasping food items while foraging. Yet, the diet of African savannah elephants varies widely between groups living in different habitats. Moreover, they have tusks alongside the trunk which can assist in grasping behaviours, and their tusk morphologies are known to vary considerably between groups. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the food grasping techniques used by the trunk of two elephant groups that live in different habitats: an arid study site in Etosha National Park in Namibia, and an area with consistent water presence in Kruger National Park in South Africa. We characterised the tusks profiles and compared the grasping techniques and their frequencies of use for different foods. Our results show differences in food‐grasping techniques between the two groups. These differences are related to the food item property and tusk profile discrepancies highlighted between the two groups. We suggest that habitat heterogeneity, particularly aridity gaps, may induce these differences. This may reveal an optimisation of grasping types depending on habitat, food size and accessibility, as well as tusk profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elephants have a unique auditory system that is larger than any other terrestrial mammal. To quantify the impact of larger middle ear (ME) structures, we measured 3D ossicular motion and ME sound transmission in cadaveric temporal bones from both African and Asian elephants in response to air-conducted (AC) tonal pressure stimuli presented in the ear canal (PEC). Results were compared to similar measurements in humans. Velocities of the umbo (VU) and stapes (VST) were measured using a 3D laser Doppler vibrometer in the 7–13,000 Hz frequency range, stapes velocity serving as a measure of energy entering the cochlea—a proxy for hearing sensitivity. Below the elephant ME resonance frequency of about 300 Hz, the magnitude of VU/PEC was an order of magnitude greater than in human, and the magnitude of VST/PEC was 5x greater. Phase of VST/PEC above ME resonance indicated that the group delay in elephant was approximately double that of human, which may be related to the unexpectedly high magnitudes at high frequencies. A boost in sound transmission across the incus long process and stapes near 9 kHz was also observed. We discuss factors that contribute to differences in sound transmission between these two large mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land Use Land Cover (LULC) changes are a major cause of natural habitat alterations and biodiversity losses affecting wildlife habitats, species distribution, and movement patterns. Understanding the impact of LULC changes on wildlife and their habitats is crucial for the implementation of effective conservation measures, especially in and around conservation areas. LULC changes between 1993, 2003, 2013, and 2023 in Omo National Park (ONP) and adjacent areas were classified and monitored. Landsat Satellite Imagery was used to determine the spatiotemporal patterns of LULC changes using a geographic information system and remote sensing techniques. We found that LULC changed over the last three decades and that LULC changes in surrounding buffer areas influenced the status of the elephant population more than changes within ONP. In ONP, open grassland decreased while the other land covers such as savanna wooded grassland, bushland, woodland, forest land and water bodies increased, whereas in the surrounding buffer areas of ONP, forest land and open grassland decreased and agricultural land increased sharply. The main cause of the contribution of land-cover change in the study area was agriculture related to the expansion of onsite farms and large-scale agricultural investment, which increased by about 284% over the 30 years. Habitats suitable for African elephants outside the eastern Park boundary were converted to sugar cane plantations leading to a decline in the African elephant population and its range, especially in the last 15 years after a Mega Sugar Project was launched in the region in 2010 to develop sugar industry. Our results have shown that large-scale agricultural investments and associated human activities have contributed to the changes in LULC affecting the suitable habitats and migration corridors of the African elephant in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Syntax, the combination of meaning-devoid phonemes into meaningful words, which in turn are combined in structurally and semantically complex sentences, is fundamental to the unlimited expressiveness of human languages. Studying the functions of call combinations in non-human species provides insights into the evolution of such syntactic capabilities. Here, we investigated the combination of high amplitude broadband calls with low frequency rumble vocalizations in a highly social species, the African forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis. Rumbles play an integral role in coordinating social interactions by transmitting socially relevant information, including individual identity. By contrast, broadband calls, such as roars, are thought to function as signals of distress and urgency as they are typically produced in situations of high emotional intensity. Functional changes associated with the combination of these calls remain little understood. We found that call combinations were produced by all age-sex classes but were most prevalent in immature individuals. We found that rumbles used singularly occurred in all five investigated social contexts, whereas single broadband calls were restricted to two resource-related contexts. Call combinations also occurred in all five contexts, suggesting an increase in the functional use of broadband calls when combined with rumbles, analogous to the generativity brought about through syntax in human speech. Moreover, combining calls appeared to lead to functional shifts towards high-stake contexts. Call combinations were more likely in competition contexts compared to single rumbles, and more likely in separation contexts compared to single broadband calls. We suggest that call combination in forest elephants may aide to reduce message ambiguity in high-stake situation by simultaneously communicating distress and individual identity, which may be critical to secure access to resources, reduce the risk of injury and to reunite with or recruit the support of the family group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Zoos are home to a diverse range of species, including those in need of conservation. Given the high costs involved in caring for their residents and satisfying their commitments to educating the public, zoos rely on patronage from visitors. Zoos, therefore, need to understand how visitors think and feel about the well-being of the animals in their collections. If visitors perceive zoos as spaces where animals are unhappy, they will be less likely to visit. This qualitative study documented and assessed visitor experiences of and responses to training activities provided for the resident herd of African elephants at Zoo Tampa, Florida, USA. Surveys were conducted with visitors following their attendance at elephant training and enrichment sessions, and they focused on ascertaining visitor perceptions of elephant emotions, care, and welfare. These surveys revealed that visitors perceived that the elephants involved in the encounters were happy, content, calm, comfortable, engaged, excited, good, playful, and safe (among other emotional descriptors) and that they experienced good welfare. Responses also gave insight into why visitors felt this was the case and identified aspects that visitors did not like or that they felt could be improved. The research provides zoos with insight into the impact that animal–caregiver interactions can have on visitors' perceptions, and it offers a model that could be applied across the sector. Zoos strive to provide excellent welfare for resident animals, including those belonging to endangered species involved in captive breeding programs while addressing visitors' concerns regarding the ethics of captivity. Zoos also rely on income and support from visitors to provide exceptional care for their animal residents. It is essential, therefore, that zoos consider how visitors perceive their animals' well-being, including physical and psychological welfare. This pragmatic, qualitative research explores the aspects of training-focused enrichment activities provided for a resident herd of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that visitors liked/disliked, and it assesses perceptions of the animals' emotions and welfare. Data were collected via surveys following live encounters at Zoo Tampa, Florida (USA). Reflexive Thematic Analysis generated key themes related to visitors' most/least-liked aspects of the encounters, including proximity, elephant–caregiver relationships (ECRs), educational content, and teaching/learning opportunities for the elephants themselves. Participants in the research perceived the elephants as happy, content, calm, comfortable, engaged, excited, good, playful, and safe (among other emotional descriptors) and as having excellent welfare. Expressions of dislike referred to visitors' inability to have contact with the elephants, such as via touching or feeding. While focused on one case-study zoo and a charismatic species, this study nonetheless provides zoos with insight into the impact that animal–caregiver interactions can have on visitors' perceptions, and it offers a model that could be applied to other species and at other zoological institutions. These visitor experiences and visitor perceptions of animal welfare drive future visitor actions, including support for zoos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The parvorder Rhynchopthirina contains three currently recognised species of lice that parasitize elephants (both African savanna elephant Loxodonta africana and Asian elephant Elephas maximus), desert warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and Red River hogs (Potamochoerus porcus), respectively. The Asian elephant lice and the African savanna elephant lice are currently treated as the same species, Haematomyzus elephantis (Piaget, 1869), based on morphology despite the fact that their hosts diverged 8.4 million years ago. In the current study, we sequenced 23 mitochondrial (mt) genes of African savanna elephant lice collected in South Africa and analysed the sequence divergence between African savanna elephant lice and previously sequenced Asian elephant lice. Sequence comparisons revealed >23% divergence for the 23 mt genes as a whole and ~17% divergence for cox1 gene between African savanna and Asian elephant lice, which were far higher than the divergence expected within a species. Furthermore, the mt gene sequence divergences between these lice are 3.76–4.6 times higher than that between their hosts, the African savanna and Asian elephants, which are expected for the co‐divergence and co‐evolution between lice and their elephant hosts. We conclude that (1) H. elephantis (Piaget, 1869) contains cryptic species and (2) African savanna and Asian elephant lice are different species genetically that may have co‐diverged and co‐evolved with their hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates meteorological drought in sub‐Saharan Africa within the context of elephant conservation. Prolonged drought significantly impacts elephants, leading to increased mortality rates and heightened human–elephant conflicts. We assess both the anticipated 21st century changes in impact‐relevant meteorological drought metrics and the efficacy of existing forecasting systems in predicting such droughts on seasonal time scales. The climate change element of our study uses the 6th Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) ensemble to evaluate projected change in 3‐month Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI3). We then carry out a quantitative assessment of seasonal forecast skill, utilizing 110 years of precipitation hindcasts generated by the European Centre for Medium Range Forecasting (ECMWF) system. Our findings indicate that persistent drought is projected to become more frequent over the 21st century in southern Africa, where the majority of elephants reside. Analysis of seasonal hindcasts indicates that, while the forecasts have greater skill than climatology, they remain highly uncertain. Previous work suggests that it may be possible to reduce this uncertainty by contextualizing forecasts within specific climate regimes. However, even with improved forecast skill, effective action hinges on the alignment of forecasts with the practical needs of conservation practitioners. Over the next decades, a co‐production approach will be critical for leveraging seasonal forecasts for climate change adaptation within the conservation sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 1993 to 1994, 64 free-ranging elephants (Loxodonta africana) succumbed to encephalomyocarditis in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, of which 83% were adult bulls. Mastomys rodents were implicated as the reservoir host of the Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) based on serology and RT-PCR. However, in the absence of sequence-confirmation of both the virus and the rodent host, definitive links between the elephant outbreak strains and rodent reservoir could not be established. In this study, we generate the first reference genome sequences for three historical EMCVs isolated from two Mastomys rodents and one Mastomys-associated mite, Laelaps muricola, in Gauteng Province, South Africa, in 1961. In addition, near-complete genome sequences were generated for two elephant outbreak virus strains, for which data were previously limited to the P1 and 3D genome regions. The consensus sequence of each virus was determined using a PCR-Sanger sequencing approach. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the three near-identical (99.95–99.97%) Mastomys-associated viruses to be sister to the two near-identical (99.85%) elephant outbreak strains, differing from each other at 6.4% of sites across the ~7400-nucleotide region characterised. This study demonstrates a link between Mastomys-associated viruses and the historical elephant outbreak strains and implicates Mastomys as reservoirs of EMCV in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Protected areas have been gazetted to protect natural resources and biodiversity, but evaluations of effectiveness rarely include measures of species population change. We compiled annual site‐level spending and elephant population data for 102 protected areas conserving either savannah (Loxodonta africana) or forest (Loxodonta cyclotis) elephants, which showed a median annual population decline of −0.78% across the protected areas. Site‐level population change was strongly associated with funding and government effectiveness. Annual funding deficits occurred in 78% of the protected areas, and when comparing necessary levels of annual spend to stabilize elephant populations, we estimate a US$1.5 billion annual funding deficit across all the protected areas. While financial investment can improve elephant conservation outcomes, there is still a need to identify where and how to best finance elephant poaching interventions, requiring a global commitment to improve the socioeconomic impacts of protected areas on local communities and reduce ivory demand.

With the escalating challenges in captive elephant management, the study of elephant reintegration emerges as a pivotal area of research, primarily addressing the enhancement of animal welfare. The term ‘reintegration’ refers to the process of rehabilitating captive elephants to a natural system, allowing them to roam freely without intensive human intervention. There is a relative paucity of research addressing the behavioural adaptations post-reintegration, despite reintegration of over 20 elephants across various fenced reserves in South Africa. Our study centres on two distinct herds of reintegrated African elephants, monitoring their movement patterns in two South African reserves over a 57-month period post-release. The primary goal of the study was to establish whether the flexibility and adaptability of movement behaviour of reintegrated elephants can be considered as one of the indicators of determining the success of such an operation. The second aim of our study was to investigate if the reintegrated elephants demonstrated an adaptability to their environment through their hourly, daily, and seasonal ranging patterns after a period of free roaming that exceeded 4 years. Our findings indicated that reintegrated elephants, much like their wild counterparts (movement based on literature), displayed notable seasonal and diurnal variations in key movement parameters, such as utilisation distribution areas and reserve utilization. These patterns changed over time, reflecting an adaptive shift in movement patterns after several years of free roaming. Notably, the trajectory of changes in movement parameters varied between herds, indicating unique adaptation responses, likely resulting from differences in the reintegration process (familiarity of reserve, season of release, presence of wild elephants). Although our study is constrained by the limited number of reintegrated herds available for analysis, it underscores the potential of captive elephants to successfully adapt to a free-living environment, emphasising the promising implications of reintegration initiatives.