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Groundwater is an essential water source in many areas in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI). The groundwater can be used for many purposes such as municipal, agricultural, and domestic. The objective of this study is to assess the quality of groundwater in the Kani-Qirzhala area. The study area covers 60 km2, and includes twenty-seven water wells, which have been selected and used to study the water quality parameters in such area. Canadian Council of Ministers for the Environment Water Quality Index method was used to evaluate Water Quality Index and SPSS software version 25 even to study the correlation between Water Quality Index and water quality parameters. The results indicated that the quality of water in most of the wells is fair, except the quality of water in wells 19, 24, and 27 is found to be poor. Well19 is located close to the Erbil landfill site (Kani-Qirzhala) and this poor quality is due to the effect of Landfill site leachate. The Well 24 is in the Erbil store area where the leachate of landfill is discharged to this surrounding area. The quality of water in well 27, on the other hand, was marginal and existed on the eastern side of the study area. The significant correlation revealed a good correlation between WQI and water quality parameters such as (pH, EC, TDS, Ca2+ Na1+, Mg2+, NO3-1, K1+, SO42-, Cl1-, Hardness, Alkalinity, Iron, and Copper).

We describe the role of symmetries in formation of quantum dynamics. A quantum version of d'Alembert's principle is proposed to take into account the symmetry constrains more exact. It is argued that the time reversibility of quantum process, as the quantum analogy of d'Alembert's principle, makes the measure of the corresponding path integral δ-like. The argument of this δ-function is the sum of all classical forces of the problem under consideration plus the random force of quantum excitations. Such measure establishes the one-to-one correspondence with classical mechanics and, for this reason, allows a free choice of the useful dynamical variables. The analysis shows that choosing the action-angle variables, one may get to the free-from-divergences quantum field theory. Moreover, one can try to get an independence from necessity to extract the degrees of freedom constrained by the symmetry. These properties of new quantization scheme are vitally essential for such theories as the non-Abelian Yang-Mills gauge theory and quantum gravity.

The Hamamok Dam is an earthfill dam with a height of 25 m and length of 125 m; constructed in 2011; located northwest of Koya town on a deep canyon-like valley that flows along the southeastern plunge of the Bana Bawi anticline; which forms Bawagi Mountain. The exposed rocks in the site belong to the Pila Spi and Gercus formations; however, rocks of the Khurmala and Kolosh formations are exposed upstream from the dam’s reservoir. The difference in the hardness of the carbonate rocks of the Pila Spi Formation which forms the uppermost parts of the cliffs surrounding the dam site and those of soft reddish brown clastics of the Gercus Formation caused steep slopes that suffer from slope instability problems. To assess a geotechnical study of slopes in the dam site, we have collected different field data to perform a Kinematic assessment method using Dip Analyst 2.0 software and draw the stereographic projection for the studied 10 stations using Stereonet v.11 software. Besides Bejerman’s method, which is based on field data only and indicates the Landslide Possibility Index (LPI). The results showed that the L.P.I. values range between 23 and 27, whereas the results of the Kinematic analysis showed that the right bank (Stations 1 – 5) suffers from plane sliding, whereas the left bank (Stations 6 – 10) suffers from toppling. In both cases, Joint 2 has the main role in the developed failures.

The Safeen Mountain is one of the main mountains in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, it forms one of the long anticlines trending NW – SE. The exposed formations on the top of the mountain are Qamchuqa, Bekhme, and Shiranish, with carbonate rocks of different types and thicknesses. Sampling took place in the exposed rocks on the top of the mountain where a road crosses the mountain, and a total of 20 samples out of 84 m thickness of the outcrop were collected. The distance between sampling intervals was depending on the lithological variation of the bedrock and each sample was collected to represent the sampling interval. The samples were subjected to XRF to indicate the main oxides percentages in each sample. The acquired results from the XRF showed the studied rocks can be used for cement and paper industries based on Iraqi Standards. They can also be considered using it in the sugar industry after a slight modification as well as in the drug industry.

The Khurmala Formation is exposed in restricted areas in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, usually between the Kolosh and Gercus formations. One of those exposed areas is the Haibat Sultan Mountain which extends from Koya town and eastwards to Sulaymaniyah city with NW-SE trend, where it passes to the Sinjar Formation. The rocks of the latter are used as the raw materials in five cement plants in Sulaymaniyah Governorate. The rocks of the Khurmala Formation were sampled near Kalka Smaq village along the road which crosses Haibat Sultan Mountain to perform an industrial assessment of the rocks. The sampled section is 65 m thick; 13 samples were collected as channel samples with regular intervals of 5 m. In the field, the samples were lithologically described and checked with HCl acid. The samples were powdered, and subjected to XRF to detect the main oxides in the samples. The obtained results of CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, SiO2, SO3, Cl, and L.O.I. as weight percentages were checked with Iraqi standards to find for what industrial uses can be suitable. Accordingly, the samples were found to be suitable for the cement industry and for the paper industry, but after slight treatment.

In the valley of the Euphrates River to the south of the Haditha city (West Iraq), the dissolution of the carbonate rocks which underlie residual soil gives rise to numerous sinkholes. These sinkholes are a potential hazard to human safety and damage to the existing infrastructure. The exposed rocks in the area under consideration belong to the Euphrates Formation of the Early Miocene age, specifically the Middle Member of the formation. Tens of sinkholes have developed with different shapes, sizes, activities, and maturities, others are under development indicating that the karstification process is still ongoing. Some of the sinkholes have spectacular scenes and can be used for touristic purposes. The karstification process has a negative impact on the infrastructure in the Haditha vicinity, especially the Hadith Dam, where extraordinary treatments to the foundation of the dam were considered to be in a safe status. We have studied different published articles and reports, which dealt with the karstification in the Haditha vicinity. Moreover, we have interpreted satellite images, and topographical and geological maps to recognize the existing sinkholes and study them. Filed trips were performed for long interrupted intervals (1984 until 2022) to collect significant data and perform field photographs for the interesting scenes.

The Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI) forms the northeastern part of the Arabian Plate that is colliding with the Eurasian Plate. Due to the ongoing collision, the whole KRI territory is folded; accordingly, long anticlines are developed in NW – SE trend, they change west wards to almost E – W. The Cretaceous carbonate rocks form the bulk of the anticlines; in the central part of KRG. North and northwest wards, rocks of Paleozoic, Triassic and Jurassic ages are exposed in the core of some anticlines. Whereas southwards, tertiary rocks are exposed in the core of anticlines. From tectonic point of view, the KRI territory is located in four tectonic zones; each has its own characteristics. Majority of the developed anticlines at the KRI are thrusted and exhibit lateral growth. We have presented many examples of laterally growing anticlines with clear indications for their growth.

The structural forms (folds and faults) in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region exhibit more complexity in the northern and northeastern parts of the region; accordingly, complicated geomorphic forms were developed too. This is attributed to the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates with a convergent boundary that runs about 35 – 40 km northeast of the studied area. Many long and tight anticlines exist in the studied area, the majority of them exhibit very complex forms, such as being faulted and their axes being bent. The main characteristic structural and Geomorphic recognized forms based on the interpretation of high-quality satellite images are: Domes, en-echelon plunges, overturned beds, faulted anticlinal and synclinal axes, abandoned and recent alluvial fans, water and wind gaps, wine glasses, and different valley shapes. The recognized structural forms are quite different from those previously presented on the geological maps of different scales, and the forms are good indications for the lateral growth of the anticlines. A Field check was carried out to check some ambiguous interpreted data and to confirm the new findings.

Visual interpretation of satellite images is a very significant technique to recognize and interpret geomorphological features. We have used Esri World Imagery and Google Earth images to recognize geomorphological features at Pira Magroon, Surdash, and Azmar anticlines in Sulaymaniyah vicinity, Kurdistan Region, north of Iraq. The mentioned anticlines are outstanding geomorphological features in the Sulaymaniyah vicinity. The recognized and interpreted geomorphological features include: wine glasses, water gaps, wind gaps, abandoned and recent alluvial fans, different types of valleys, flat irons, karstification features …etc. All these features were discussed in detail with many images to show the discussed cases, most of the interpreted data and presented figures were never mentioned previously.

The Bradost and Chinara mountains are two well-known geomorphic features in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region (IKR), forming two anticlines, besides Shireen and Sare Musa anticlines, which are located north of the Bradost anticline, all four anticlines trend NW – SE. The four anticlines are dissected by the Greater Zab River that swings along its course within the anticlines due to tens of very old landslides and/or plunges. The four studied anticlines are dissected by different thrust faults, which extend for a few kilometers. The thrust faults trend NW – SE; however, locally they deflect from the main trend. The Lower Jurassic rocks are the oldest exposed rocks in the studied area, whereas the rocks of the Bekhme Formation form the carapace of the Bradost and Chinara anticlines. Different structural and geomorphological features were interpreted from satellite images and those which are accessible were checked in the field, all of them indicate the four anticlines exhibit lateral growth. We have measured different aspects to elucidate the type of folds. The four anticlines are Detachment folds, with shallow decollement, which ranges in depth between (100–250) m.

The study area lies in the Lower Folded Zone of the Outer Platform of Iraq, which belongs to the Arabian Plate. The Outer Platform is a part of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt, which is in the Zagros Foreland Basin. Due to the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates, tens of folds were developed among the anticlines that occur in the study area. The course of the Greater Zab River in the study area crosses several anticlines before merging with the Tigris River. Different river terrace levels were recognized locally as three levels along the course of the river. It is clear from the achieved data that the rates of an incision during the Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene are: 5.036 mm/ 100 years, 8.979 mm/ 100 years, and 18.117 mm/ 100 years, respectively. The maximum rate of upward movements (3.485 mm/ 100 year) was recorded at 700 m from Bekhme gorge, where the first exposures of the Fatha and Injana formations exist. The maximum rate of downwards movement (13.769 mm / 100 year) was recognized at the southeastern part of Barda Rash anticline. The rate of the upwards movement decreases towards the southeast, and the minimum rate of downwards (7.314 mm / 100 year) was recorded in Sarta oil well 1 location, near the Greater Zab River. The rates of the upwards and downwards movements are not regular. This is attributed to the existence of anticlines and synclines, which means Neotectonic activities.

Visual interpretation of satellite images is a very significant technique to recognize and interpret structural features, which indicate lateral growth of folds, the origin of folds, and dating of folds using the exposure dating method. In this study, Landsat 8 (ESSRI) and Google Earth images are used to recognize structural features at Pira Magroon, Surdash, and Azmar anticlines in the Sulaimaniyah vicinity, Kurdistan Region, north of Iraq. The mentioned anticlines are outstanding geomorphological and structural features in the Sulaimaniyah vicinity. The recognized and interpreted structural features include: en-echelon folding, domes, and Neotectonic indication. All these features are discussed in detail with many images to show the discussed cases, most of the interpreted data and presented figures are never mentioned previously.

A new highway is under construction since few years to join the capital; Erbil city with many main towns connecting; in the plan to the northern boarders of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region. It is a double lane road constructed according to modern standards. It crosses many mountains, and two tunnels are already completed, one is almost completed and another one is abandoned: hitherto. The completed part of the highway reaches the Hareer town with some parts being under construction before and after the Shaqlawa town. Because parts of the Highway are not completed yet; therefore, those parts suffer from slope stability problems; mainly due to the drainage problems. Other completed parts; however, suffer also from slope stability problems; mainly due to steep slope road cuts and/ or irrelevant treatments for the road cuts. Among those unstable slopes, we have chosen six stations, which experienced the most severe failures. At those six stations, we have applied field method to estimate the possibility of failure following Bejerman’s method. We have found that the failure possibility is high in the station Nos. 1- 4, and is Low in the station Nos. 5 and 6.

Mosul Dam is located in the northwestern part of Iraq impounding the Tigris River; about 60 km north of Mosul city. This project is multipurpose project; to provide water for irrigation, flood control and hydropower generation. The dam is 113 m high and 3650 m long including the spillway. The dam is earth fill type with a mud core. The dam was designed to impound 11.11 km3 because it is based and underlain by gypsum beds alternated with limestone and marl. Therefore, it is planned to use continuous grouting to fill the karst caverns. The used quantity exceeded 95000 tons of solid grouting materials since 1986 up to 2014. After all, is the dam safe? The details are given in the current article.

The Qamchuqa Formation is widely exposed in Kurdistan Region (IKR); north of Iraq. The formation along with the Bekhme Formation form the bulk of the main mountains (anticlines) in the IKR. Among those anticlines is the Ranya anticline, which has a NW – SE trend, where the Qamchuqa Formations has a thickness of about 700 m. The main lithological facies of the formation are limestone, dolomitic limestone and dolomite. We have sampled the uppermost 89 meters of the northeastern limb, by collecting 10 samples of different sampling intervals that range from (3 – 12) m. The ten rock samples were tested by an XRF to measure the concentration of the oxides at each sample. The XRF results showed that the 10 rock samples are limestone with different percentages of oxides. The weighted averages of the oxides in the collected samples have been calculated, and the results showed that the limestone beds along the studied section in the upper part of the Qamchuqa Formations are suitable for the cement industry. The average concentration of CaO and MgO is 55.13 % and 0.26 %, respectively.

The main lithological composition of different formations in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region is the carbonate rocks; some of those rocks are suitable for cement production; such as Qamchuqa Bekhme, Sinjar, Pila Spi and Anah formations. However, the six existing cement plants in are using limestone beds, five of those plants are using limestone from the Sinjar Formation, and one plant is using limestone from the Anah Formation. Recently, performed research works confirmed that the limestone beds within the Qamchuqa, Bekhme and Pila Spi formations are very suitable for cement production. The current research work deals with studying the exposed limestone beds within the Bekhme Formation at Hareer Mountain in the central part of IKR to check their suitability for the cement industry. Accordingly, we collected 12 rock samples from a section within the Bekhme Formation at an almost constant sampling interval (5 m); however, for two samples the sampling interval was 6 and 8 m (sample No. 2 and 12, respectively). Each sample represents a channel sample for the concerned sampling interval to be representative for the thickness of the sampled interval. The total thickness of the sampled section is 64 m with a covered interval of 30 m, totaling up to 94 m. The collected 12 samples were prepared at the laboratory of the University of Kurdistan Hewler and were subjected to XRF test at Mass Cement Plant (Sulaimaniyah) to check the concentration of certain oxides that are used in the Iraqi Standard for cement production. The acquired concentrations of the main oxides (CaO, MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O, SO3), and Cl and L.O.I. at each sample were changed to weighted averages and the results were compared with the Iraqi standards for cement industry. The result was the sampled rocks are excellent for cement production.

The road that crosses the Haibat Sultan Mountain in the northern part of Iraq; is one of the dangerous roads in this region. To perform a slope stability analysis for the dangerous parts of the road, we have used Bejerman’s Method. We have reviewed satellite images of the road and all those potential areas were checked in the field; accordingly, eleven stations were recognized. Landslide Possibility Index was determined at the studied stations following Bejerman’s field method. The road climbs the southern face (dip slope) of the mountain through very hard carbonate rocks of the Pila Spi Formation, where the bedding planes daylight in the slope face near the road cuts. This produced many large landslides. Along the northern face of the mountain, the road runs through soft clastic rocks where joint planes in the rock mass intersect and daylight in the slope face near the road cut. In order to prevent future wedge failures, a 30 m offset was created from the toe of the slope to the road. In almost all cases, the Landslide Possibility Index indicated a moderate to very high likelihood for failure along all road cuts.

Many stone tools were found on a hill south of the Hor Al-Dalmaj which is located in the central part of the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The types of rocks from which the studied stone tools were made are not found in the alluvial plain, because it consists of friable sand, silt, and clay. All existing sediments were precipitated in riverine environments such as point bar, over bank, and floodplain sediments. The collected stone tools were described with a magnifying glass (10 x) and a polarized microscope after they were thin sectioned. Microscopic analysis showed that these stone tools are made of sedimentary, volcanic igneous and metamorphic rocks, such as: sandstones, limestones, chert, conglomerate, rhyolite, basalt, mica schist, and quartzite. The current studied stone tools were used by ancient humans as pestles, querns, scrapers, and knives. The present study showed that these tools were transported from outside the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia. A stone tool at the archaeological site of Al-Dalmaj indicates that there were some trade routes that connected this site with its surrounding; in addition to the economic, and that might occurred cultural exchanges during the Neolithic Period.

Implementation of a Quality Assurance (QA) program in geological investigation is very significant and essential, especially when the investigation is carried out for selection and evaluation of strategic and vital project sites. The current work is a case study for selection and evaluation of a strategic site in Iraq where a QA program was implemented for the first time in the Iraq Geological Survey (as a Contractor) as a mandatory condition implied by the Client for all work carried out and included in the geological investigation. The geological investigation included six main activities: 1) geology, 2) hydrogeology, 3) geophysics, 4) engineering geology, 5) drilling and 6) laboratory work. The main roles of QA staff were to: 1) check the qualifications of all staff members involved in the six activities, 2) verify work procedures by means of which the staff members of each activity were performing their tasks, 3) follow-up all carried out works in the field, laboratory and office, 4) verify all types of work outputs by the staff members of the six activities, and 5) recognize any nonconformance in any type of carried out work before been recognized by the QA and/ or Quality Control (QC) staff of the Client. During the performance of the contract that lasted for 30 months, three nonconformance cases by the Contractor were recognized by the QA staff members and relevant corrective actions were performed. The three cases were not detected or recognized by the QA and QC staff members of the Client.

Haditha Dam is constructed on the Euphrates River in the western part of Iraq completed in 1988 and located 14 km west of Haditha town. Haditha Dam is a combined earthfill and concrete dam with a total length of 9064 m. The maximum height of the dam is 57 m from the deepest point at the river channel and dam crest level is 154.00 m (a.s.l.). The storage capacity is 6×109 m3 at normal operation water level of 143 m (a.s.l.). The exposed formations in the dam site and reservoir area are the Euphrates (Lower Miocene) and Fatha (Middle Miocene) formations. Both formations are well known in Iraq to be karstified at different intensities. The right bank of the Euphrates River is severely karstified with tens of sinkholes of different shapes, dimensions and activities. The presence of the karstified rocks is the main reason the dam has a very long grout curtain which extends along its entire length and includes the concrete powerhouse and spillway structure in the river channel, and the right and left bank extensions. The right bank extension of the grout curtain is exceptionally long due to the extent of the sinkhole area. Grouting was performed here in boreholes drilled at one-meter spacing to reduce water penetration and movement through the flank of the dam. The grout curtain under the embankment in the river section was done in two rows, while under the concrete structure it is comprised of three rows of holes. The left bank extension has two rows. The depths of all parts of the curtain varied following the karstification zones and intensities. The main aim of the current study is to elucidate and discuss the influence of the karstified rocks at the dam site and reservoir on the design and especially the length of the dam and the need for side extensions.

Shanidar Cave is located in north Iraq (Kurdistan Region), it is one of the most well-known caves in the region due to its archeological significance. It is an archaeological site which is located within Bradost Mountain north of Erbil city. In the cave, eleven skeletons of Neanderthals, have been found dating back to 65000 – 35000 years B.C., they were called Shanidar (1-11). The cave also contains two later proto-Neolithiccemeteries. The cave is developed due to dissolution of limestone beds of the Qamchuqa Formation which forms the carapace of Bradost Mountain (anticline). Currently, the cave and the downslopes to the foothills of the mountain are limited by a fence. The cave can be reached by a paved road to the foothills level, then by stepping following artificially constructed leader which is designed and constructed by local materials from stones and wood giving to the leader a natural view. The Shanidar cave is highly recommended to be a national Geopark due to its archeological significance

Gara and Mateen are 2 major anticlines in the northern part of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, located in the vicinity of the town Amadiyah. Both anticlines are oriented in an almost east–west (E–W) trend with a steep southern limb. The length and width of the Gara and Mateen anticlines are 87 km and 63 km, and 11 km and 9.5 km, respectively. The 2 anticlines are separated by a wide and shallow syncline filled by the Tertiary rocks of the Pliocene–Pleistocene age. The oldest exposed rocks in the Gara and Mateen anticlines are from the Triassic age. The carapace of both anticlines is built up by the Bekhme and Qamchuqa formations. The geomorphological and structural features were studied through satellite images and geological maps. Based on these studies, it was found that both anticlines show clear geomorphological and structural features that indicate their lateral growth. Among those features are water and wind gaps, different shapes of valleys that indicate lateral growth, abandoned alluvial fans, whale-back shapes, en-echelon plunges, and multiple dome anticlines. Furthermore, the rate of upward movements was calculated using neotectonic data. In addition, the rate of river and stream incisions was calculated on the basis of the height of the river terrace levels.

A stream survey was conducted in the Sidakan vicinity in the northeastern part of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, which covered the catchment area of the main stream. The covered area is about 450 km2. The exposed rocks in the study area are mainly igneous with subordinate sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The catchment area was divided into 14 sub-basins using Global Mapper software. The junction point of the valleys at the end of each sub-basin was sampled. From each junction point, 2 stream sediments were collected. The samples were sieved using the wet method into 2 mm fractions, before the fractions were subjected to x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The results obtained from both tests were used to calculate the concentrations of 9 elements (Cr, Ni, Co, Cu, U, Ag, V, Zn, and Cd). The element concentrations are presented in 9 concentration maps after normalizing the concentration values. Some anomalous results were found. The average concentrations of Ag and Cd were nearly 120 and 266 times higher than the background concentrations (6 mg/kg and 16 mg/ kg, respectively). The acquired data also showed interesting average concentrations for the elements Co, Cr, Ni, and U (280 mg/kg, 999 mg/kg, 375 mg/kg, and 12 mg/kg, respectively). All of these anomalous concentrations are discussed and possible reasons for their existence are given.

The Pila Spi Formation is one of the prominent formations forming continuous ridges in Kurdistan Region. The thickness of the formation ranges from 15 to 110 m, consisting of well-bedded limestone, dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and very rare marl beds. The study area is located about 15 km east of Koya town, next to the abandoned tunnel through a deeply cut valley which has exposed 50 m of the formation. However, the uppermost part of the exposed section may belong to one of the Oligocene formations of Kirkuk Group. The study area was selected within the Pila Spi Formation because the rocks of the same formation and along the same ridge, about 45 km west of the study area showed encouraging results for cement industry. The average CaO is about 51%, whereas the average MgO is 1.8%. Therefore, eight samples were collected at constant thickness from the exposed section. The samples were subjected to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) test to indicate the main oxides in the sampled section. The acquired results from the XRF tests showed that the chemical composition of the exposed rocks within the Pila Spi Formation is suitable for cement industry, also for paper and paint but needs some treatment. Accordingly, another eight samples were collected from the same section to increase the density of sampling, totaling to 16 samples.

Aqra Anticline is a double plunging anticline, oriented NW–SE with a steep southwestern limb and even overturned. Geomorphological features are interpreted using satellite images, as a result, it was found that the anticline shows clear geomorphological and structural features which indicate the lateral growth of the anticline. Among those features are water gaps, wind gaps, forked-shaped valleys, curved valleys, inclined valleys and dislocated and abandoned alluvial fans. Some of the vague interpreted features were checked and confirmed in the field.