Search

Red supergiant stars (RSGs) represent the final evolutionary phase of the majority of massive stars and hold a unique role in testing the physics of stellar models. Eighty eight RSGs in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) were recently found to have an ultra-violet excess that was attributed to a B-type companion. We present follow-up Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) ultra-violet (1700 -- 3000\,\AA) spectroscopy for 16 of these stars to investigate the nature of the UV excess and confirm the presence of a hot companion. In all cases we are able to confirm that the companion is a main-sequence B-type star based on the near-UV continuum. We determine effective temperatures, radii and luminosities from fitting the UV continuum with TLUSTY models and find stellar parameters in the expected range of SMC B-type stars. We display these results on a Hertzsprung--Russell diagram and assess the previously determined stellar parameters using UV photometry alone. From this comparison we conclude that UV photometric surveys are vital to identify such companions and UV spectroscopy is similarly vital to characterise the hot companions. From a comparison with IUE spectra of 32 Cyg, a well known RSG binary system in the Galaxy, four targets display evidence of being embedded in the wind of the RSG, like 32 Cyg, although none to the more extreme extent of VV Cep. The ages of six targets, determined via the stellar parameters of the hot companions, are found to be in tension with the ages determined for the RSG. A solution to this problem could be binary mass-transfer or red straggler stars., Comment: Submitted to A&A. Comments welcome

Stars stripped of their hydrogen-rich envelopes through binary interaction are thought to be responsible for both hydrogen-poor supernovae and the hard ionizing radiation observed in low-$Z$ galaxies. A population of these stars was recently observed for the first time, but their prevalence remains unknown. In preparation for such measurements, we estimate the mass distribution of hot, stripped stars using a population synthesis code that interpolates over detailed single and binary stellar evolution tracks. We predict that for a constant star-formation rate of $1 \,M_\odot$/yr and regardless of metallicity, a population contains $\sim$30,000 stripped stars with mass $M_{\rm strip}>1M_\odot$ and $\sim$4,000 stripped stars that are sufficiently massive to explode ($M_{\rm strip}>2.6M_\odot$). Below $M_{\rm strip}=5M_\odot$, the distribution is metallicity-independent and can be described by a power law with the exponent $\alpha \sim -2$. At higher masses and lower metallicity ($Z \lesssim 0.002$), the mass distribution exhibits a drop. This originates from the prediction, frequently seen in evolutionary models, that massive low-metallicity stars do not expand substantially until central helium burning or later and therefore cannot form long-lived stripped stars. With weaker line-driven winds at low metallicity, this suggests that neither binary interaction nor wind mass loss can efficiently strip massive stars at low metallicity. As a result, a "helium-star desert" emerges around $M_{\rm strip} =15\, M_\odot$ at $Z=0.002$, covering an increasingly large mass range with decreasing metallicity. We note that these high-mass stars are those that potentially boost a galaxy's He$^+$-ionizing radiation and that participate in the formation of merging black holes. This "helium-star desert" therefore merits further study., Comment: 16 pages, 9 figures, submitted to A&A

Massive stars mainly form in close binaries, where their mutual interactions can profoundly alter their evolutionary paths. Evolved binaries consisting of a massive OB-type main-sequence star with a stripped helium star or a compact companion represent a crucial stage in the evolution towards double compact objects, whose mergers are (potentially) detectable via gravitational waves. The recent detection of X-ray quiet OB+black hole binaries and OB+stripped helium star binaries has set the stage for discovering more of these systems in the near future. In this work, based on 3670 detailed binary-evolution models and using empirical distributions of initial binary parameters, we compute the expected population of such evolved massive binaries in coeval stellar populations, including stars in star clusters and in galaxies with starburst activities, for ages up to 100 Myr. Our results are vividly illustrated in an animation that shows the evolution of these binaries in the color-magnitude diagram over time. We find that the number of OB+black hole binaries peaks around 10 Myr, and OB+neutron star binaries are most abundant at approximately 20 Myr. Both black holes and neutron stars can potentially be found in populations with ages up to 90 Myr. Additionally, we analyze the properties of such binaries at specific ages. We find that OB+helium stars and OB+black hole binaries are likely to be identifiable as single-lined spectroscopic binaries. Our research serves as a guide for future observational efforts to discover such binaries in young star clusters and starburst environments., Comment: 32 pages, 15 figures. Accepted for Publication in Astrophysical Journal Letters (ApJL)

Surveys in the Milky Way and Large Magellanic Cloud revealed that the majority of massive stars will interact with companions during their lives. However, knowledge of the binary properties of massive stars at low metallicity, which approaches the conditions of the Early Universe, remains sparse. We present the Binarity at LOw Metallicity (BLOeM) campaign - an ESO large programme designed to obtain 25 epochs of spectroscopy for 929 massive stars in the SMC - the lowest metallicity conditions in which multiplicity is probed to date (Z = 0.2 Zsun). BLOeM will provide (i) the binary fraction, (ii) the orbital configurations of systems with periods P < 3 yr, (iii) dormant OB+BH binaries, and (iv) a legacy database of physical parameters of massive stars at low metallicity. The stars are observed with the LR02 setup of the giraffe instrument of the Very Large Telescope (3960-4570A, resolving power R=6200; typical signal-to-noise ratio S/N=70-100). This paper utilises the first 9 epochs obtained over a three-month time. We describe the survey and data reduction, perform a spectral classification of the stacked spectra, and construct a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram of the sample via spectral-type and photometric calibrations. The sample covers spectral types from O4 to F5, spanning the effective temperature and luminosity ranges 6.5

Context. B supergiants (BSGs) represent an important connection between the main sequence and more extreme evolutionary stages of massive stars. Additionally, lying toward the cool end of the hot star regime, determining their wind properties is crucial to constrain the evolution and feedback of massive stars as, for instance, they might manifest the bi-stability jump phenomenon. Aims. We undertake a detailed analysis of a representative sample of 18 Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) BSGs within the ULLYSES and XShootU datasets. Our UV and optical analysis spans BSGs from B0 to B8 - covering the bi-stability jump region. We aim to evaluate their evolutionary status and verify what their wind properties say about the bi-stability jump in a low-metallicity environment. Methods. We used the CMFGEN to model the spectra and photometry (from UV to infrared) of our sample. We compare our results with different evolutionary models, with previous determinations in the literature of OB stars, and with diverging mass-loss recipes at the bi-stability jump. Additionally, we provide the first BSG models in the SMC including X-rays. Results. (i) Within a single-stellar evolution framework, the evolutionary status of early BSGs seem less clear than that of late BSGs, which agree with H-shell burning models. (ii) UV analysis shows evidence that BSGs contain X-rays in their atmospheres, for which we provide constraints. In general, we find higher X-ray luminosity (close to the standard log(L_X/L) ~ -7) for early BSGs. For cooler BSGs, lower values are preferred, log(L_X/L) ~ -8.5. (iii) The obtained mass-loss rates suggest neither a jump nor a monotonic decrease with temperature. Instead, a rather constant trend is observed, which is at odds with the increase found for Galactic BSGs. (iv) The wind velocity behavior with temperature shows a sharp drop at ~19 kK, similar to what is observed for Galactic BSGs., Comment: 33 pages (23+10)+(22 at Zenodo), 34 figures (21+13)+(21 at Zenodo), 7 tables (3+4)+(1 at Zenodo), accepted for publication

In order to predict the black hole mass distributions at high redshift, we need to understand whether very massive single stars ($M>40$ M$_\odot$) at low metallicity $Z$ lose their hydrogen-rich envelopes, like their metal-rich counterparts, or whether a binary companion is required to achieve this. To test this, we undertake a deep spectroscopic search for binary companions of the seven apparently single Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC; $Z \simeq 1/5 Z_\odot$). For each of them, we acquired six high-quality VLT-UVES spectra spread over 1.5 years. By using the narrow N V lines in these spectra, we monitor radial velocity (RV) variations to search for binary motion. We find low RV variations between 6 and 23 km/s for the seven WR stars, with a median standard deviation of $5$ km/s. Our Monte Carlo simulations imply probabilities below ~5% for any of our target WR stars to have a binary companion more massive than ~5 M$_\odot$ at orbital periods of less than a year. We estimate that the probability that all our target WR stars have companions with orbital periods shorter than 10 yr is below ~10$^{-5}$, and argue that the observed modest RV variations may originate from intrinsic atmosphere or wind variability. Our findings imply that metal-poor massive stars born with $M \gtrsim 40$ M$_\odot$ can lose most of their hydrogen-rich envelopes via stellar winds or eruptive mass loss, which strongly constrains their initial mass - black hole mass relation. We also identify two of our seven target stars (SMC AB1 and SMC AB11) as runaway stars with a peculiar radial velocity of ~80 km/s. Moreover, with all five previously detected WR binaries in the SMC exhibiting orbital periods of below 20 d, a puzzling absence of intermediate-to-long-period WR binaries has emerged, with strong implications for the outcome of massive binary interaction at low metallicity., Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

Blue supergiants are the brightest stars in their host galaxies and yet their evolutionary status has been a long-standing problem in stellar astrophysics. In this pioneering work, we present a large sample of 59 early B-type supergiants in the Large Magellanic Cloud with newly derived stellar parameters and identify the signatures of stars born from binary mergers among them. We simulate novel 1D merger models of binaries consisting of supergiants with hydrogen-free cores (primaries) and main-sequence companions (secondaries) and consider the effects of interaction of the secondary with the core of the primary. We follow the evolution of the new-born $16-40$ M$_{\odot}$ stars until core-carbon depletion, close to their final pre-explosion structure. Unlike stars which are born alone, stars born from such stellar mergers are blue throughout their core helium-burning phase and reproduce the surface gravities and Hertzsprung-Russel diagram positions of most of our sample. This indicates that the observed blue supergiants are structurally similar to merger-born stars. Moreover, the large nitrogen-to-carbon and oxygen ratios, and helium enhancements exhibited by at least half our data sample are uniquely consistent with our model predictions, leading us to conclude that a large fraction of blue supergiants are indeed products of binary mergers.

Observations of individual massive stars, super-luminous supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, and gravitational-wave events involving spectacular black-hole mergers, indicate that the low-metallicity Universe is fundamentally different from our own Galaxy. Many transient phenomena will remain enigmatic until we achieve a firm understanding of the physics and evolution of massive stars at low metallicity (Z). The Hubble Space Telescope has devoted 500 orbits to observe 250 massive stars at low Z in the ultraviolet (UV) with the COS and STIS spectrographs under the ULLYSES program. The complementary ``X-Shooting ULLYSES'' (XShootU) project provides enhanced legacy value with high-quality optical and near-infrared spectra obtained with the wide-wavelength coverage X-shooter spectrograph at ESO's Very Large Telescope. We present an overview of the XShootU project, showing that combining ULLYSES UV and XShootU optical spectra is critical for the uniform determination of stellar parameters such as effective temperature, surface gravity, luminosity, and abundances, as well as wind properties such as mass-loss rates in function of Z. As uncertainties in stellar and wind parameters percolate into many adjacent areas of Astrophysics, the data and modelling of the XShootU project is expected to be a game-changer for our physical understanding of massive stars at low Z. To be able to confidently interpret James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) spectra of the first stellar generations, the individual spectra of low Z stars need to be understood, which is exactly where XShootU can deliver., Comment: Accepted in A&A - 35 Pages, 12 Figures, 4 Tables, 2 Large Tables

The origin of the observed population of Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars in low-metallicity (low-Z) galaxies, such as the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), is not yet understood. Standard, single-star evolutionary models predict that WR stars should stem from very massive O-type star progenitors, but these are very rare. On the other hand, binary evolutionary models predict that WR stars could originate from primary stars in close binaries. We conduct an analysis of the massive O star, AzV 14, to spectroscopically determine its fundamental and stellar wind parameters, which are then used to investigate evolutionary paths from the O-type to the WR stage with stellar evolutionary models. Multi-epoch UV and optical spectra of AzV 14 are analyzed using the non-LTE stellar atmosphere code PoWR. An optical TESS light curve was extracted and analyzed using the PHOEBE code. The obtained parameters are put into an evolutionary context, using the MESA code. AzV 14 is a close binary system consisting of two similar main sequence stars with masses of 32 Msol. Both stars have weak stellar winds with mass-loss rates of log $\dot{M}$ = -7.7. Binary evolutionary models can explain the empirically derived stellar and orbital parameters. The model predicts that the primary will evolve into a WR star with T = 100 kK, while the secondary, which will accrete significant amounts of mass during the first mass transfer phase, will become a cooler WR star with T = 50 kK and are predicted to have compared to other WR stars increased oxygen abundances. This model prediction is supported by a spectroscopic analysis of a WR star in the SMC. We hypothesize that the populations of WR stars in low-Z galaxies may have bimodal temperature distributions. Hotter WR stars might originate from primary stars, while cooler WR stars are the evolutionary descendants of the secondary stars if they accreted a significant amount of mass., Comment: 21 pages (13 main body + 8 appendix), 16 figures, 9 tables

Massive star feedback affects the evolution of galaxies, where the most massive stars may have the largest impact. The majority of massive stars are born as members of close binary systems. Here, we investigate detailed evolutionary models of very massive binaries (30$\dots$90$M_{\odot}$) with Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) metallicity. We identify four effects defying the conventional knowledge of binary evolution, which are all related to the proximity of the models to the Eddington limit. We find that the majority of systems undergo mass transfer during core hydrogen burning. During the ensuing nuclear timescale evolution, many mass donors remain more massive than their companions (``reverse Algols''), and nuclear timescale mass transfer may be interrupted or absent altogether. Furthermore, due to the elevated luminosity-to-mass ratio, many of the core-hydrogen burning donors may develop Wolf-Rayet-type winds, at luminosities where single stars would not. We identify observational counterparts of very massive reverse Algol binaries in the LMC, and discuss their contribution to the observed hydrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet stars. We argue that an understanding of very massive Algol systems is key to predicting the advanced evolution of very massive binaries, including their ability to evolve into observable gravitational wave sources., Comment: 15 pages, 5 figures, proposed for acceptance in A&A. Animation at https://zenodo.org/record/4068428#.Y-SrOtLMKV4

Spectroscopic observations of stars in young open clusters have revealed evidence for a dichotomous distribution of stellar rotational velocities, with 10-30% of stars rotating slowly and the remaining 70-90% rotating fairly rapidly. At the same time, high-precision multiband photometry of young star clusters shows a split main sequence band, which is again interpreted as due to a spin dichotomy. Recent papers suggest that extreme rotation is required to retrieve the photometric split. Our new grids of MESA models and the prevalent SYCLIST models show, however, that initial slow (0-35% of the linear Keplerian rotation velocities) and intermediate (50-65% of the Keplerian rotation velocities) rotation are adequate to explain the photometric split. These values are consistent with the recent spectroscopic measurements of cluster and field stars, and are likely to reflect the birth spin distributions of upper main-sequence stars. A fraction of the initially faster-rotating stars may be able to reach near-critical rotation at the end of their main-sequence evolution and produce Be stars in the turn-off region of young star clusters. However, we find that the presence of Be stars up to two magnitudes below the cluster turnoff advocates for a crucial role of binary interaction in creating Be stars. We argue that surface chemical composition measurements may help distinguish these two Be star formation channels. While only the most rapidly rotating, and therefore nitrogen-enriched, single stars can evolve into Be stars, slow pre-mass-transfer rotation and inefficient accretion allows for mild or no enrichment even in critically rotating accretion-induced Be stars. Our results shed new light on the origin of the spin distribution of young and evolved B-type main sequence stars., Comment: 18 pages, 14 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A

We probe how common extremely rapid rotation is among massive stars in the early universe by measuring the OBe star fraction in nearby metal-poor dwarf galaxies. We apply a new method that uses broad-band photometry to measure the galaxy-wide OBe star fractions in the Magellanic Clouds and three more distant, more metal-poor dwarf galaxies. We find OBe star fractions of ~20% in the Large Magellanic Cloud (0.5 Z_Solar), and ~30% in the Small Magellanic Cloud (0.2 Z_Solar) as well as in the so-far unexplored metallicity range from 0.1 Z_solar to 0.2 Z_solar occupied by the other three dwarf galaxies. Our results imply that extremely rapid rotation is common among massive stars in metal-poor environments such as the early universe., Comment: Conference proceedings for a talk in IAU Symposium 361: Massive Stars Near and Far, Ballyconnell, Ireland, 9-13 May 2022

The Early Universe, together with many nearby dwarf galaxies, is deficient in heavy elements. The evolution of massive stars in such environments is thought to be affected by rotation. Extreme rotators amongst them tend to form decretion disks and manifest themselves as OBe stars. We use a combination of U B, GAIA, Spitzer, and Hubble Space Telescope photometry to identify the complete populations of massive OBe stars - one hundred to thousands in number - in five nearby dwarf galaxies. This allows us to derive the galaxy-wide fractions of main sequence stars that are OBe stars (f_OBe), and how it depends on absolute magnitude, mass, and metallicity (Z). We find f_OBe = 0.22 in the Large Magellanic Cloud (0.5 Z_Sun), increasing to f_OBe = 0.31 in the Small Magellanic Cloud (0.2 Z_Sun). In the so far unexplored metallicity regime below 0.2 Z_Sun, in Holmberg I, Holmberg II, and Sextans A, we also obtain high OBe star fractions of 0.27, 0.27, and 0.27, respectively. These high OBe star fractions, and the strong contribution in the stellar mass range which dominates the production of supernovae, shed new light on the formation channel of OBe stars, as well as on the preference of long-duration gamma-ray bursts and superluminous supernovae to occur in metal-poor galaxies., Comment: 19 pages, 23 figures - accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

We present UVIT/Astrosat UV photometry of the RSG population of the Small Cloud galaxy (SMC). As RSGs are extremely faint in the far-UV, these observations directly probe potential companion stars. From a sample of 861 SMC RSGs, we find 88 have detections at far-UV wavelengths: a clear signature of binarity. Stellar parameters are determined for both components, which allows us to study - for the first time - the mass-ratio (q) distribution of RSG binary systems. We find a flat mass-ratio distribution best describes the observations up to M{RSG}~15 Msun. We account for our main observing bias (i.e. the limiting magnitude of the UVIT survey) to determine the intrinsic RSG binary fraction of 18.8+/-1.5 %, for mass-ratios in the range 0.3 < q < 1.0 and orbital periods approximately in the range 3 < log P[ days] < 8., Comment: IAU Symposium 361 contribution

We aim to identify and characterise binary systems containing red supergiant (RSG) stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) using a newly available ultraviolet (UV) point source catalogue obtained using the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) on board AstroSat. We select a sample of 560 SMC RSGs based on photometric and spectroscopic observations at optical wavelengths and cross-match this with the far-UV point source catalogue using the UVIT F172M filter, finding 88 matches down to m$_{F172M}$=20.3 ABmag, which we interpret as hot companions to the RSGs. Stellar parameters (luminosities, effective temperatures and masses) for both components in all 88 binary systems are determined and we find mass distributions in the ranges 6.1 to 22.3 Solar masses for RSGs and 3.7 to 15.6 Solar masses for their companions. The most massive RSG binary system in the SMC has a combined mass of 32 $\pm$4 M$_\odot$, with a mass ratio (q) of 0.92. By simulating observing biases, we find an intrinsic multipliciy fraction of 18.8 $\pm$ 1.5% for mass ratios in the range 0.3 < q < 1.0 and orbital periods approximately in the range 3 < log P [days] < 8. By comparing our results with those of a similar mass on the main-sequence, we determine the fraction of single stars to be ~20% and argue that the orbital period distribution declines rapidly beyond log P ~ 3.5. We study the mass-ratio distribution of RSG binary systems and find that a uniform distribution best describes the data below 14 M$_\odot$. Above 15 M$_\odot$, we find a lack of high mass-ratio systems., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS; 17 pages

Recent high-quality Hubble Space Telescope (HST) photometry shows that the main sequences (MS) stars of young star clusters form two discrete components in the color-magnitude diagram (CMD). Based on their distribution in the CMD, we show that stars of the blue MS component can be understood as slow rotators originating from stellar mergers. We derive the masses of the blue MS stars, and find that they follow a nearly flat mass function, which supports their unusual formation path. Our results imply that the cluster stars gain their mass in two different ways, by disk accretion leading to rapid rotation, contributing to the red MS, or by binary merger leading to slow rotation and populating the blue MS. We also derive the approximate merger time of the individual stars of the blue MS component, and find a strong early peak in the merger rate, with a lower level merger activity prevailing for tens of Myr. This supports recent binary formation models, and explains new velocity dispersion measurements for members of young star clusters. Our findings shed new light on the origin of the bi-modal mass, spin, and magnetic field distributions of main-sequence stars., Comment: Published in Nature Astronomy online. Link to the paper:https://rdcu.be/cGLpH

About a quarter of massive binary stars undergo mass transfer while both stars burn hydrogen at their cores, first on the thermal and then on the nuclear timescale. The nuclear timescale mass transfer leads to observable counterparts: the semi-detached so-called massive Algol binaries. However, comprehensive model predictions for these systems are sparse. We study them using a large grid of ~10,000 detailed binary evolution models calculated with the stellar evolution code MESA, covering initial donor masses between 10-40 M$_{\odot}$ and initial orbital periods above 1.4 d, at a metallicity suitable for the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). Our models imply ~30, or ~3% of the ~1,000 core hydrogen burning O-star binaries in the LMC to be currently in the semi-detached phase. Our donor models are up to 25-times more luminous than single stars of identical mass and effective temperature, which agrees with the observed Algols. A comparison of our models with the observed orbital periods and mass ratios implies rather conservative mass transfer in some systems, while very inefficient one in others. This is generally well reproduced by our spin-dependent mass transfer algorithm, except for the lowest considered masses. The observations reflect the slow increase of the surface nitrogen enrichment of the donors during the semi-detached phase all the way to CNO equilibrium. We also investigate the properties of our models after core hydrogen depletion of the donor star, when these models correspond to Wolf-Rayet/helium+OB star binaries. A dedicated spectroscopic survey of massive Algol systems may allow to derive the dependence of the efficiency of thermal timescale mass transfer on the binary parameters, as well as the efficiency of semiconvective mixing in the stellar interior. This would be a crucial step towards reliable binary models up to the formation of supernovae and compact objects., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A (December 6, 2021)

Context. Binary evolution can result in fast-rotating stars, predicted to be observable as Be stars, through accretion of angular momentum during mass-transfer phases. Despite numerous observational evidence pointing to this possibly being the dominant Be formation channel, current models struggle to produce a satisfactory description of Be star populations. Aims. Given distinct uncertainties in detailed binary evolution calculations, we investigate a rigorous and model independent upper limit for the production of Be stars through binary interaction and aim to confront this limit with observations of Be stars in young star clusters. Methods. Using extreme assumptions, we calculate the number ratio of post-interaction to pre-interaction binary systems in a coeval population, which describes an upper limit to Be star formation through mass-transfer. A detailed comparison is made between our derived upper limit and relevant observations of Be stars, which allows us to probe several aspects of binary star physics. Results. We find that in coeval populations, binary interaction can at most account for one third of all main-sequence stars being Be stars. Near the cluster turn-off region, this limit appears to be realised in the clusters studied. Away from the turn-off, applying simple assumptions about which systems undergo unstable mass-transfer produces a good fit to the observed Be fraction as a function of mass. Conclusions. We find that assuming distinct physics, binary evolution alone can in principle match the high numbers of Be stars observed in open clusters. Whether the required binary physics is realised in nature remains to be investigated., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A

Massive star evolution at low metallicity is closely connected to many fields in high-redshift astrophysics, but poorly understood. The Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) is a unique laboratory to study this because of its metallicity of 0.2 Zsol, its proximity, and because it is currently forming stars. We used a spectral type catalog in combination with GAIA magnitudes to calculate temperatures and luminosities of bright SMC stars. By comparing these with literature studies, we tested the validity of our method, and using GAIA data, we estimated the completeness of stars in the catalog as a function of luminosity. This allowed us to obtain a nearly complete view of the most luminous stars in the SMC. When then compared with stellar evolution predictions. We also calculated the extinction distribution, the ionizing photon production rate, and the star formation rate. Our results imply that the SMS hosts only 30 very luminous main-sequence stars (M > 40 Msol; L > 10^5 Lsol), which are far fewer than expected from the number of stars in the luminosity range 3*10^4 < L/Lsol < 3*10^5 and from the typically quoted star formation rate in the SMC. Even more striking, we find that for masses above M > 20 Msol, stars in the first half of their hydrogen-burning phase are almost absent. This mirrors a qualitatively similar peculiarity that is known for the Milky Way and Large Magellanic Cloud. This amounts to a lack of hydrogen-burning counterparts of helium-burning stars, which is more pronounced for higher luminosities. We argue that a declining star formation rate or a steep initial mass function are unlikely to be the sole explanations for the dearth of young bright stars. Instead, many of these stars might be embedded in their birth clouds, although observational evidence for this is weak. We discuss implications for cosmic reionization and the top end of the initial mass function., Comment: 26 pages, 23 figures. Astronomy and Astrophysics, in press

The recent gravitational wave measurements have demonstrated the existence of stellar mass black hole binaries. It is essential for our understanding of massive star evolution to identify the contribution of binary evolution to the formation of double black holes. A promising way to progress is investigating the progenitors of double black hole systems and comparing predictions with local massive star samples such as the population in 30 Doradus in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). Methods. To this purpose, we analyse a large grid of detailed binary evolution models at LMC metallicity with initial primary masses between 10 and 40 Msun, and identify which model systems potentially evolve into a binary consisting of a black hole and a massive main sequence star. We then derive the observable properties of such systems, as well as peculiarities of the OB star component. We find that about 3% of the LMC late O and early B stars in binaries are expected to possess a black hole companion, when assuming stars with a final helium core mass above 6.6 M to form black holes. While the vast majority of them may be X-ray quiet, our models suggest that these may be identified in spectroscopic binaries, either by large amplitude radial velocity variations ( > 50 km s ) and simultaneous nitrogen surface enrichment, or through a moderate radial velocity ( > 10 km/s ) and simultaneously rapid rotation of the OB star. The predicted mass ratios are such that main sequence companions could be excluded in most cases. A comparison to the observed OB+WR binaries in the LMC, Be/X-ray binaries, and known massive BH binaries supports our conclusion. We expect spectroscopic observations to be able to test key assumptions in our models, with important implications for massive star evolution in general, and for the formation of double-black hole mergers in particular., Comment: 19 pages, 14 figures, Astronomy and Astrophysics, in press

Star clusters are the building blocks of galaxies. They are composed of stars of nearly equal age and chemical composition, allowing us to use them as chronometers and as testbeds for gauging stellar evolution. It has become clear recently that massive stars are formed preferentially in close binaries, in which mass transfer will drastically change the evolution of the stars. This is expected to leave a significant imprint in the distribution of cluster stars in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Our results, based on a dense model grid of more than 50,000 detailed binary-evolution calculations, indeed show several distinct, coeval main-sequence (MS) components, most notably an extended MS turnoff region, and a group of near-critical rotating stars that is spread over a large luminosity range on the red side of the classical MS. We comprehensively demonstrate the time evolution of the features in an animation, and we derive analytic expressions to describe these features. We find quantitative agreement with results based on recent photometric and spectroscopic observations. We conclude that while other factors may also be at play, binary evolution has a major impact on the MS morphology of young star clusters., Comment: 12 pages, 5 figures, 1 animation, published in ApJL, 2020, 888, L12

Context. The evolution of massive stars is strongly influenced by internal mixing processes such as semiconvection, convective core overshooting, and rotationally induced mixing. None of these is currently well constrained. Aims. We investigate models for massive stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC). We aim to constrain the various mixing efficiencies by comparing model results to observations. Methods. We use the stellar evolution code MESA to compute more than 60 grids of detailed evolutionary models for stars with initial masses of 9 to 100 Msol, in each grid assuming different combinations of mixing efficiencies. Results. We find that for most of the combinations of the mixing efficiencies, models in a wide mass range spend core-helium burning either only as blue supergiants, or only as red supergiants. The latter case corresponds to models that maintain a shallow slope of the hydrogen/helium (H/He) gradient separating the core and the envelope of the models. Only a small part of the mixing parameter space leads to models that produce a significant number of blue and red supergiants, which both exist abundantly in the SMC. Interestingly, these models contain steep H/He gradients, as is required to understand the hot, hydrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet stars in the SMC. We find that unless it is very fast, rotation has a limited effect on the H/He profiles in our models. Conclusions. While we use specific implementations of the considered mixing processes, they comprehensively probe the two first order structural parameters: the core mass and the H/He gradient in the core-envelope interface. Our results imply that, in massive stars, the H/He gradients above the helium cores become very steep. Our model grids can be tested with future observational surveys of the massive stars in the SMC, and thereby help to considerably reduce the uncertainties in models of massive star evolution., Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics. 16 pages, 14 figures

We model the late evolution and mass loss history of rapidly rotating Wolf-Rayet stars in the mass range $5\,\rm{M}_{\odot}\dots 100\,\rm{M}_{\odot}$. We find that quasi-chemically homogeneously evolving single stars computed with enhanced mixing retain very little or no helium and are compatible with Type\,Ic supernovae. The more efficient removal of core angular momentum and the expected smaller compact object mass in our lower mass models lead to core spins in the range suggested for magnetar driven superluminous supernovae. Our more massive models retain larger specific core angular momenta, expected for long-duration gamma-ray bursts in the collapsar scenario. Due to the absence of a significant He envelope, the rapidly increasing neutrino emission after core helium exhaustion leads to an accelerated contraction of the whole star, inducing a strong spin-up, and centrifugally driven mass loss at rates of up to $10^{-2}\,\rm{M}_{\odot}~\rm{yr^{-1}}$ in the last years to decades before core collapse. Since the angular momentum transport in our lower mass models enhances the envelope spin-up, they show the largest relative amounts of centrifugally enforced mass loss, i.e., up to 25\% of the expected ejecta mass. Our most massive models evolve into the pulsational pair-instability regime. We would thus expect signatures of interaction with a C/O-rich circumstellar medium for Type~Ic superluminous supernovae with ejecta masses below $\sim 10\,\rm{M}_{\odot}$ and for the most massive engine-driven explosions with ejecta masses above $\sim 30\,\rm{M}_{\odot}$. Signs of such interaction should be observable at early epochs of the supernova explosion, and may be related to bumps observed in the light curves of superluminous supernovae, or to the massive circumstellar CO-shell proposed for Type~Ic superluminous supernova Gaia16apd., Comment: 20 pages, 15 figures, 2 tables Accepted for publication in ApJ

Stripped-envelope stars (SESs) form in binary systems after losing mass through Roche-lobe overflow. They bear astrophysical significance as sources of UV and ionizing radiation in older stellar populations and, if sufficiently massive, as stripped supernova progenitors. Binary evolutionary models predict them to be common, but only a handful of subdwarfs (i.e., SESs) with B-type companions are known. This could be the result of observational biases hindering detection, or an incorrect understanding of binary evolution. We reanalyze the well-studied post-interaction binary phi Persei. Recently, new data improved the orbital solution of the system, which contains a ~1.2 Msun SES and a rapidly rotating ~9.6 Msun Be star. We compare with an extensive grid of evolutionary models using a Bayesian approach and find initial masses of the progenitor of 7.2+/-0.4 Msun for the SES and 3.8+/-0.4 Msun for the Be star. The system must have evolved through near-conservative mass transfer. These findings are consistent with earlier studies. The age we obtain, 57+/-9 Myr, is in excellent agreement with the age of the alpha Persei cluster. We note that neither star was initially massive enough to produce a core-collapse supernova, but mass exchange pushed the Be star above the mass threshold. We find that the subdwarf is overluminous for its mass by almost an order of magnitude, compared to the expectations for a helium core burning star. We can only reconcile this if the subdwarf is in a late phase of helium shell burning, which lasts only 2-3% of the total lifetime as a subdwarf. This could imply that up to ~50 less evolved, dimmer subdwarfs exist for each system similar to phi Persei. Our findings can be interpreted as a strong indication that a substantial population of SESs indeed exists, but has so far evaded detection because of observational biases and lack of large-scale systematic searches., Comment: 11 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

The majority of Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars represent the stripped cores of evolved massive stars who lost most of their hydrogen envelope. In low metallicity environments, such as the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), stellar winds are weaker and binary interaction is expected to dominate WR-star formation. However, the WR binary fraction appears to be ~40% at any metallicity. We use the recently determined physical properties of the twelve known SMC WR stars to explore their possible formation channels through comparisons with grids of SMC models, simulated with the detailed stellar evolution code MESA. These include models of rapidly rotating single stars, which experience (partial) chemically homogeneous evolution (CHE). We find that CHE is not able to account for the majority of the SMC WR stars. However, the apparently single WN star SMC AB12 and the double WR system SMC AB5 (HD 5980) appear consistent with this channel. We also analyze core helium burning stellar models assuming constant hydrogen gradients in their envelopes. We find a dichotomy in the envelope hydrogen gradients required to explain the observed temperatures of the SMC WR stars. Shallow gradients are found for the WR stars with O star companions, consistent with binary models where mass transfer occurs early, which is in agreement with their binary properties. On the other hand, much steeper hydrogen gradients are inferred for the group of hot apparently single WR stars. Since the hydrogen profiles in post main sequence models of massive stars become steeper with time, we conclude that these stars have likely been stripped by a companion during a phase of common envelope evolution. The companions, either main sequence stars or compact objects, are expected to still be present. A corresponding search might identify the first immediate double black hole binary progenitor with masses as high as those detected in GW150914., Comment: 17 pages, 23 figures, accepted by Astronomy and Astrophysics

Most massive stars, the progenitors of core-collapse supernovae, are in close binary systems and may interact with their companion through mass transfer or merging. We undertake a population synthesis study to compute the delay-time distribution of core-collapse supernovae, that is, the supernova rate versus time following a starburst, taking into account binary interactions. We test the systematic robustness of our results by running various simulations to account for the uncertainties in our standard assumptions. We find that a significant fraction, $15^{+9}_{-8}$%, of core-collapse supernovae are `late', that is, they occur 50-200 Myrs after birth, when all massive single stars have already exploded. These late events originate predominantly from binary systems with at least one, or, in most cases, with both stars initially being of intermediate mass ($4-8M_{\odot}$). The main evolutionary channels that contribute often involve either the merging of the initially more massive primary star with its companion or the engulfment of the remaining core of the primary by the expanding secondary that has accreted mass at an earlier evolutionary stage. Also, the total number of core-collapse supernovae increases by $14^{+15}_{-14}$% because of binarity for the same initial stellar mass. The high rate implies that we should have already observed such late core-collapse supernovae, but have not recognized them as such. We argue that $\phi$ Persei is a likely progenitor and that eccentric neutron star - white dwarf systems are likely descendants. Late events can help explain the discrepancy in the delay-time distributions derived from supernova remnants in the Magellanic Clouds and extragalactic type Ia events, lowering the contribution of prompt Ia events. We discuss ways to test these predictions and speculate on the implications for supernova feedback in simulations of galaxy evolution., Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

Massive binaries (MBs) play a crucial role in the Universe. Knowing the distributions of their orbital parameters (OPs) is important for a wide range of topics, from stellar feedback to binary evolution channels, from the distribution of supernova types to gravitational wave progenitors, yet, no direct measurements exist outside the Milky Way. The Tarantula Massive Binary Monitoring was designed to help fill this gap by obtaining multi-epoch radial velocity monitoring of 102 MBs in the 30 Dor. In this paper, we analyse 32 VLT/FLAMES observations of 93 O- and 7 B-type binaries. We performed a Fourier analysis and obtained orbital solutions for 82 systems: 51 single- and 31 double-lined spectroscopic binaries. Overall, the OPs and binary fraction are remarkably similar across the 30 Dor region and compared to existing Galactic samples (GSs). This indicates that within these domains environmental effects are of second order in shaping the properties of MBs. A small difference is found in the distribution of orbital periods (OrbPs), which is slightly flatter (in log space) in 30 Dor than in the Galaxy, although this may be compatible within error estimates and differences in the fitting methodology. Also, OrbPs in 30 Dor can be as short as 1.1 d; somewhat shorter than seen in GSs. Equal mass binaries q>0.95 in 30 Dor are all found outside NGC 2070 the very young and massive cluster at 30 Dor's core. One outstanding exception however is the fact that earliest spectral types (O2-O7) tend to have shorter OrbPs than latter (O9.2-O9.7). Our results point to a relative universality of the incidence rate of MBs and their OPs in the metallicity range from solar ($Z_{\odot}$) to about $0.5Z_{\odot}$. This provides the first direct constraints on MB properties in massive star-forming galaxies at the Universes peak of star formation at redshifts z~1 to 2, which are estimated to have $Z~0.5Z_{\odot}$., Comment: 36 pages, 19 figures, 10 tables, published in A\&A