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Parapatric distributions between ecologically similar species have the potential to reveal the effects of limiting similarity in large-scale patterns of species coexistence. We present a qualitative model that predicts three different types of parapatric boundaries between competing species pairs: gap parapatry, abrupt parapatry and narrow sympatry. Our model integrates both niche-based and neutral theory perspectives of coexistence in the context of climatic tolerances, species equivalence, contingencies of dispersal history, priority effects and a heterogeneous patchwork of optimal and suboptimal habitat. Using species distribution models, tests of niche overlap and phylogeographical data, we evaluated assumptions and conditions of this model for four species of mostly allopatric, rock-dwelling rattlesnakes (Viperidae: Crotalus) inhabiting arid mountain ranges of the Mohave–Sonoran desert system of western North America. Our model was adequate for predicting the different types of range boundaries observed across this guild of ecologically similar species. Where species distributions were separated by a steep climatic gradient without evidence of recent dispersal, we observed gap parapatry; where historical dispersal was asymmetric, we observed abrupt parapatry; and finally, where historical dispersal was symmetric, we observed narrow sympatry.

We are in a modern biodiversity crisis that will restructure community compositions and ecological functions globally. Large mammals, important contributors to ecosystem function, have been affected directly by purposeful extermination and indirectly by climate and land-use changes, yet functional turnover is rarely assessed on a global scale using metrics based on functional traits. Using ecometrics, the study of functional trait distributions and functional turnover, we examine the relationship between vegetation cover and locomotor traits for artiodactyl and carnivoran communities. We show that the ability to detect a functional relationship is strengthened when locomotor traits of both primary consumers (artiodactyls, n = 157 species) and secondary consumers (carnivorans, n = 138 species) are combined into one trophically integrated ecometric model. Overall, locomotor traits of 81% of communities accurately estimate vegetation cover, establishing the advantage of trophically integrated ecometric models over single-group models (58 to 65% correct). We develop an innovative approach within the ecometrics framework, using ecometric anomalies to evaluate mismatches in model estimates and observed values and provide more nuance for understanding relationships between functional traits and vegetation cover. We apply our integrated model to five paleontological sites to illustrate mismatches in the past and today and to demonstrate the utility of the model for paleovegetation interpretations. Observed changes in community traits and their associated vegetations across space and over time demonstrate the strong, rapid effect of environmental filtering on community traits. Ultimately, our trophically integrated ecometric model captures the cascading interactions between taxa, traits, and changing environments.

An understanding of science concepts is important for living in modern society. Supporting adults’ science learning can be particularly challenging because most adults no longer attend formal educational institutions where access and opportunities are facilitated by teachers and school-sponsored programs. Biological field stations (BFSs) are a newly recognized educational venue that hold considerable intrinsic value for adult science education. In this study, we conducted a survey of 223 U.S. BFSs about their nonformal and informal educational outreach programs for adults. Results show BFSs offer a wide variety of science learning programs for adults, focused heavily on experiential learning to engage learners. These experiences promote interactions with the natural environment and are perceived to increase participants’ knowledge and skills. This study has implications for how adult educators can better support the professional development of science educators at BFSs and enrich the general public's science learning.

Synopsis The incredible complexity of biological processes across temporal and spatial scales hampers defining common underlying mechanisms driving the patterns of life. However, recent advances in sequencing, big data analysis, machine learning, and molecular dynamics simulation have renewed the hope and urgency of finding potential hidden rules of life. There currently exists no framework to develop such synoptic investigations. Some efforts aim to identify unifying rules of life across hierarchical levels of time, space, and biological organization, but not all phenomena occur across all the levels of these hierarchies. Instead of identifying the same parameters and rules across levels, we posit that each level of a temporal and spatial scale and each level of biological organization has unique parameters and rules that may or may not predict outcomes in neighboring levels. We define this neighborhood, or the set of levels, across which a rule functions as the zone of influence. Here, we introduce the zone of influence framework and explain using three examples: (a) randomness in biology, where we use a Poisson process to describe processes from protein dynamics to DNA mutations to gene expressions, (b) island biogeography, and (c) animal coloration. The zone of influence framework may enable researchers to identify which levels are worth investigating for a particular phenomenon and reframe the narrative of searching for a unifying rule of life to the investigation of how, when, and where various rules of life operate.

The white-footed deer mouse ( Peromyscus leucopus ) and the North American deer mouse ( P. maniculatus ) are widely distributed throughout North America, often with overlapping distributions. These species are believed to be sympatric east of the Balcones fault zone in Texas, but records from natural history collections indicate that P. maniculatus is not common from this region. Given that these two species are notoriously difficult to differentiate morphologically, it is possible that specimens have been incorrectly identified and that P. maniculatus may be rare or not present in East Texas. This study aims to determine if P. leucopus and P. maniculatus can be differentiated morphologically east of the Balcones fault zone in Texas. Cranial and external characters from genetically identified specimens representing each species were analyzed using traditional and geometric morphometric methods. Morphological analyses revealed that genetically identified specimens of P. leucopus and P. maniculatus from east of the Balcones fault zone could be differentiated using a suite of morphological characters. Many of the specimens of P. leucopus used in this study were originally misidentified, suggesting that P. maniculatus is rare in East Texas.

Biological field stations (BFSs) are well positioned through their informal STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education programs to improve levels of science literacy and support environmental sustainability. A survey of 223 US BFSs revealed that their outreach programs strive to promote conservation and environmental stewardship in addition to disseminating place-based knowledge and/or skills. In this article, we unpack the educational approaches that BFSs use to engage learners, the aspects of science literacy most often addressed, and the perceived learning outcomes. Most notably, the BFSs reported that their participants develop an interest in and excitement for science, increase or change their knowledge of program topics, identify more with the scientific enterprise, and engage in scientific practices. The results indicate opportunities for BFSs to conduct more rigorous assessments of participant learning and program impact. By focusing on learner engagement, science learning, and participant outcomes, BFSs and other place-based informal education venues can expand their efforts and better support conservation and science learning.

Comparative studies of mortality in the wild are necessary to understand the evolution of aging; yet, ectothermic tetrapods are underrepresented in this comparative landscape, despite their suitability for testing evolutionary hypotheses. We present a study of aging rates and longevity across wild tetrapod ectotherms, using data from 107 populations (77 species) of nonavian reptiles and amphibians. We test hypotheses of how thermoregulatory mode, environmental temperature, protective phenotypes, and pace of life history contribute to demographic aging. Controlling for phylogeny and body size, ectotherms display a higher diversity of aging rates compared with endotherms and include phylogenetically widespread evidence of negligible aging. Protective phenotypes and life-history strategies further explain macroevolutionary patterns of aging. Analyzing ectothermic tetrapods in a comparative context enhances our understanding of the evolution of aging.

Robust, spatially explicit approaches accounting for ecological drivers are needed to identify environmental correlates of roadkill and set conservation priorities. We predicted wildlife road mortality across a nationwide road network using species distribution models with environmental covariates. We applied MaxEnt to a citizen science database of > 60,000 roadkill records to predict roadkill probability. Twenty-eight environmental covariates at 50 m spatial resolution were included, such as road type and land cover composition. We focused on ecological guilds and endangered species: common venomous snakes (CVS), semiaquatic and aquatic snakes (SAS), turtles, and the Maki’s keelback snake (Hebius miyajimae, HM). All predictive models performed well with AUCs > 0.7. Projected roadkill risks for CVS, SAS, turtles, and HM were highest in montane regions, coastal lowlands, the southwestern coast, and parts of central Taiwan, respectively. Roadkill projection models performed well across ecological levels and scales. Road-type strongly influenced roadkill risk. As predictions and variable importance differed across guild and species models, individual models need to be produced for each group of interest. Additionally, the project emphasizes the importance of systematic collection of roadkill data, which contributes to both informing conservation action and engaging the public in wildlife education. We discovered novel findings on predicted high- and low-risk areas for groups with conservation need and produced interactive roadkill risk maps as a conservation tool for managers and practitioners. Importantly, this methodology is not limited to Taiwan; it can be applied anywhere with sufficient roadkill and environmental data and is scalable to address the ecological question of interest.

Both climate and land-use change have accelerated over the past decades. The cumulative effects of these disruptions are not additive or systematic, rather they pose complex, dynamic environmental challenges to ecological systems. To survive, terrestrial plants and animals will need to shift their distributions to track habitable regions or exhibit the flexibility to survive these shifting environmental regimes. As biota dramatically shift their ranges, ecological communities across Earth’s natural landscapes will restructure. We must formulate effective, long-term dynamic conservation approaches to accommodate migration, adaptation, and acclimation in response to rapid change. However, given the dynamic nature of today’s changes, it can be challenging to identify the most effective strategies that allow ecosystems to bounce forward. I will present research from a new special feature that argues the importance of taking a deeper-time perspective to large-scale solutions to the modern biodiversity crisis. Conservation practitioners highlight the ecological theory and hypotheses that should be examined to effectively translate historical findings into actionable conservation practices. Ecologists and paleoecologists, working across temporal scales, demonstrating approaches that have already begun to effectively inform the conservation of biodiversity on a dynamically changing planet. Studies identify resilient and connected landscapes, explore ecological movement dynamics, and evaluate how extinctions and range-shifting species lead to the erosion of functional groups that affect trait-environment dynamics through space and time. I will highlight research that addresses some of the main challenges for performing conservation paleontology at large spatial scales: 1) knowledge coproduction; 2) hypothesis development and testing using long-term historical data; 3) reporting of effect sizes for direct applications; and 4) integration into applied products.

Mammalian megafauna have been critical to the functioning of Earth’s biosphere for millions of years. However, since the Plio-Pleistocene, their biodiversity has declined, concurrent with dramatic environmental change and hominin evolution. While these biodiversity declines are well-documented, their impacts on the ecological function of megafaunal communities remain uncertain. Here, we adapt ecometric methods to evaluate whether biodiversity losses since 7.5 Ma were coincident with disruptions to the functional link between communities of herbivorous, eastern African megafauna and their environments (i.e., functional trait-environment relationships). Herbivore taxonomic and functional diversity began to decline during the Pliocene, as open grassland habitats emerged, persisted, and expanded. In the mid-Pleistocene, grassland expansion intensified and Acheulean hominin tools emerged. It was then that phylogenetic diversity declined and the trait-environment relationships of herbivore communities shifted significantly. Our results divulge the varying implications of different losses in megafaunal biodiversity. Only the losses that occurred since the environmental and anthropogenic changes of the Pleistocene were coincident with a disturbance to community ecological function. Such a disturbance may occur in even greater magnitude in the future, as climate change and human impacts intensify. Preventing it will require that species move across landscapes, so that their traits may track changing environmental conditions. We build an ecometric model of modern megafaunal communities in Africa, and we use it to identify communities whose species will need to shift across space so that trait-environment relationships remain undisturbed. Conservation efforts that focus on movement routes between these communities will be critical if megafauna are to persist and continue providing essential ecological functions.

Ecosystem function relies in part on aligned relationships between functional traits of animals and the environments in which they live. Studies of trait-environment relationships have largely focused on communities of native species, but domestic and non-native species also play a role in the functioning of modern ecosystems. We use ecometrics, or study of functional trait-environment relationships, to evaluate the impact of domestic and non-native species on community-level trait composition and its relationship with precipitation by comparing four community compositions: modern native, modern native plus domestic, modern native plus non-native, and late Pleistocene (0.126–0.0117 Ma). We integrate large and small herbivorous mammals into a single ecometric model of hypsodonty (i.e., tooth crown height) and annual precipitation (n=8439, r=-0.7, R2=0.4, p

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Fire is an integral part of semiarid to moderately humid ecosystem dynamics in North America. The biogeographical settings in which fires readily occur are affected by global processes like climate change, as well as local and regional characteristics such as terrain, proximity to human infrastructure, and vegetation structure. Increasing numbers and severity of fires today requires high-resolution and accurate predictions of fire probability. Species distribution models (SDM) allow researchers to identify environmental predictors of fire and depict the probability of fire occurrence. We applied a Maximum Entropy (Maxent) SDM to identify fire predictors and fire risk across a broad biogeographic humid to semi-arid climate gradient within the state of Texas. We used 15 years (2001-2016) of remotely sensed fire occurrence data, along with 13 biophysical variables representing climate, terrain, human activity, and landcover to generate multiple models. Annual precipitation was the primary predictor of fire occurrence, followed by elevation and landcover. After projecting fire probability onto three climate scenarios, we found moderate change in fire distribution. Humid and sub-humid areas had higher probabilities of fire occurrence while arid regions had lower probabilities under those scenarios. Overall, the linkage between fire occurrence and annual precipitation suggests that climate-driven fire probabilities will be variable under projected future climates.

Understanding variation of traits within and among species through time and across space is central to many questions in biology. Many resources assemble species-level trait data, but the data and metadata underlying those trait measurements are often not reported. Here, we introduce FuTRES (Functional Trait Resource for Environmental Studies; pronounced few-tress), an online datastore and community resource for individual-level trait reporting that utilizes a semantic framework. FuTRES already stores millions of trait measurements for paleobiological, zooarchaeological, and modern specimens, with a current focus on mammals. We compare dynamically derived extant mammal species' body size measurements in FuTRES with summary values from other compilations, highlighting potential issues with simply reporting a single mean estimate. We then show that individual-level data improve estimates of body mass-including uncertainty-for zooarchaeological specimens. FuTRES facilitates trait data integration and discoverability, accelerating new research agendas, especially scaling from intra- to interspecific trait variability.

Additional file 1.

Understanding variation of traits within and among species through time and across space is central to many questions in biology. Many resources have been developed to assemble trait data at the species level, but the underlying data and metadata about those trait measurements are often not reported, limiting broadest utility. Here we introduce FuTRES (Functional Trait Resource for Environmental Studies), a datastore and community resource for individual-level trait reporting that utilizes a strong semantic framework and best practices approach to overcome previous limitations. FuTRES already stores millions of trait measurements that span across multiple time scales, including zooarchaeological and paleobiological specimens, with a current focus on mammals. Two case studies showcase the promise of FuTRES. The first compares dynamically derived extant mammal species' body size estimates with summary values from other compilations, highlighting potential issues with simply reporting a single mean estimate. The second shows that FuTRES data improves estimates of body mass – including uncertainty – for zooarchaeological specimens. FuTRES facilitates trait data integration and discoverability, accelerating new research agendas, especially scaling from intra- to interspecific trait variability.

Investments in informal STEM should target underserved counties to reach populations underrepresented in STEM careers., Informal learning institutions (ILIs) create opportunities to increase public understanding of science and promote increased inclusion of groups underrepresented in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) careers but are not equally distributed across the United States. We explore geographic gaps in the ILI landscape and identify three groups of underserved counties based on the interaction between population density and poverty percentage. Among ILIs, National Park Service lands, biological field stations, and marine laboratories occur in areas with the fewest sites for informal learning opportunities and have the greatest potential to reach underserved populations, particularly in rural or high poverty counties. Most counties that are underserved by ILIs occur in the Great Plains, the southeast, and the northwest. Furthermore, these counties have higher Indigenous populations who are underrepresented in STEM careers. These unexpected geographic gaps represent opportunities for investments in ILI offerings through collaborations and expansion of existing resources.

Geometric morphometrics (GM) is a powerful analytical approach for evaluating phenotypic variation relevant to taxonomy and systematics, and as with any statistical methodology, requires adherence to fundamental assumptions for inferences to be strictly valid. An important consideration for GM is how landmark configurations, which represent sets of anatomical loci for evaluating shape variation through Cartesian coordinates, relate to underlying homology (Zelditch et al. 1995; Polly 2008). Perhaps more so than with traditional morphometrics, anatomical homology is a crucial assumption for GM because of the mathematical and biological interpretations associated with shape change depicted by deformation grids, such as the thin plate spline (Klingenberg 2008; Zelditch et al. 2012). GM approaches are often used to analyze shapes or outlines of structures, which are not necessarily related to common ancestry, and in this respect GM approaches that use linear semi-landmarks and related methods are particularly amenable to evaluating primary homology, or raw similarity between structures (De Pinna 1991; Palci & Lee 2019). This relaxed interpretation of homology that focuses more on recognizable and repeatable landmarks is defensible so long as authors are clear regarding the purpose of the analyses and in defining their landmark configurations (Palci & Lee 2019). Secondary homology, or similarity due to common ancestry, can also be represented with GM methods and is often assumed to be reflected in fixed Type 1 (juxtaposition of tissues) or Type 2 (self-evident geometry) landmarks (Bookstein 1991).

As shown from several long‐term and time‐intensive studies, closely related, sympatric species can impose strong selection on one another, leading to dramatic examples of phenotypic evolution. Here, we use occurrence data to identify clusters of sympatric Sceloporus lizard species and to test whether Sceloporus species tend to coexist with other species that differ in body size, as we would expect when there is competition between sympatric congeners. We found that Sceloporus species can be grouped into 16 unique bioregions. Bioregions that are located at higher latitudes tend to be larger and have fewer species, following Rapoport's rule and the latitudinal diversity gradient. Species richness was positively correlated with the number of biomes and elevation heterogeneity of each bioregion. Additionally, most bioregions show signs of phylogenetic underdispersion, meaning closely related species tend to occur in close geographic proximity. Finally, we found that although Sceloporus species that are similar in body size tend to cluster geographically, small‐bodied Sceloporus species are more often in sympatry with larger‐bodied Sceloporus species than expected by chance alone, whereas large‐bodied species cluster with each other geographically and phylogenetically. These results suggest that community composition in extant Sceloporus species is the result of allopatric evolution, as closely related species move into different biomes, and interspecies interactions, with sympatry between species of different body sizes. Our phyloinformatic approach offers unique and detailed insights into how a clade composed of ecologically and morphologically disparate species are distributed over large geographic space and evolutionary time., Here, we use open source databases to understand the evolutionary impact of sympatric species on phenotypes. We found that species are not evenly distributed across the Americas and that small‐bodied lizard species are geographically overdispersed and are often found in sympatry with species of a different size class. Conversely, large‐bodied species cluster in geographic space and are often in sympatry with other large species

Variable selection in ecological niche modelling can influence model projections to a degree comparable to variations in future climate scenarios. Consequently, it is important to select feature (variable) subsets for optimizing model performance and characterizing variability. We utilize a novel random subset feature selection algorithm (RSFSA) for niche modelling to select an ensemble of optimally sized feature subsets of limited correlation (|r

Ecosystem-based management (EBM) is an integrated approach that recognizes the complex interactions within an ecosystem. Proper facilitation of EBM techniques require explicitly defined spatial boundaries, but biophysical processes, human activities, and the ecosystems that they influence operate at various scales. Careful thought to combine ecological, physical, and regulatory boundaries to define spatial scales of coastal regions can be a tedious yet significant early step towards the meaningful application of ecosystem-based management. We recommend nine coastal regions for the Northern Gulf of Mexico by creating both regulatory and biophysically meaningful spatial boundaries. A basic framework illustrating the utility of publicly available spatial datasets for defining the seaward, landward, and lateral boundaries of coastal regions is provided. These nine coastal regions will be key in creating spatial criteria for the Northern Gulf of Mexico, within which differences in ecosystem services can be measured, and temporal changes in ecosystem services can be tracked. The framework developed here is meant to build capacity for EBM and serve as a starting point for the continued discussion and modification of sensible ecological, geographical and political boundaries.

Species delimitation attempts to match species-level taxonomy with actual evolutionary lineages. Such taxonomic conclusions are typically, but not always, based on patterns of congruence across multiple data sources and methods of analyses. Here, we use this pluralistic approach to species delimitation to help resolve uncertainty in species boundaries of phrynosomatid sand lizards of the genus Holbrookia. Specifically, the Spot-tailed Earless Lizard (H. lacerata) was historically divided into a northern (H. l. lacerata) and southern (H. l. subcaudalis) subspecies based on differences in morphology and allopatry, but no research has been conducted evaluating genetic differences between these taxa. In this study, patterns in sequence data derived from two genes, one nuclear and one mitochondrial, for 66 individuals sampled across 18 counties in Texas revealed three strongly supported, reciprocally monophyletic lineages, each comprised of individuals from a single geographic region. Distinct genetic variation evident across two of these regions corresponds with differences in morphology, differences in environmental niche, and lines up with the presumed geographic barrier, the Balcones Escarpment, which is the historical subspecies boundary. The combined evidence from genetics, morphology and environmental niche is sufficient to consider these subspecies as distinct species with the lizards north of the Balcones Escarpment retaining the name Holbrookia lacerata, and those south of the Balcones Escarpment being designated as Holbrookia subcaudalis.

Hypercarnivorous mammal species are among the most vulnerable to population losses and endangerment. Among species belonging to Family Canidae, hypercarnivores are frequently subject to intense conservation efforts including captive breeding and reintroduction attempts. However, hypercarnivorous species may be most vulnerable to morphological changes in captivity, potentially altering their cranial functionality and limiting their reintroduction success. Other canid species with varying dietary preferences are also maintained in captivity, although it is unknown if morphological changes are prevalent across all captive canid populations or if these changes are concentrated primarily within hypercarnivores. To examine whether canids display morphological changes in captivity regardless of dietary preference, we assessed cranial and mandibular shape of 1621 specimens representing 15 canid species using geometric morphometric techniques. All hypercarnivores (4 species) and many hypocarnivores (5 of 7 species) differed between captive and wild populations in at least one shape variable. None of the mesocarnivores (4 species) differed in any shape variable. Among the carnivory types, hypercarnivorous species had the most pronounced differences in shape, particularly associated with a widening and shortening of the cranium within captive populations. Changes in cranial shape may impact an animal's ability to successfully capture and consume prey, therefore differences in cranial shape in captive populations may represent an obstacle to future reintroduction success. By examining cranial and mandibular shape differences between captive and wild populations, we explore the long-term impacts of captivity in canids in an effort to mitigate these negative effects in the future and increase the potential for reintroduction success.

The late Quaternary fossil record provides crucial data that demonstrate how organisms respond to climate change. These records have been used to great effect, demonstrating that no-analog communities frequently occur during periods of no-analog climate, and that taxa demonstrate individualistic responses to change. However, our efforts to reconstruct biotic responses to environmental change are frequently hampered by inconsistent sampling and differential preservation of fossil taxa. We leveraged occupancy modeling methods and the fossil pollen record across eastern North America to identify circumstances under which occupancy modeling improves our ability to estimate relative abundance in four pollen taxa (Cornus, Fagus, Picea, and Pinus) through time (15 kya to present) and to identify localities where data are unreliable reflections of the local community. We found that integrating observed pollen abundance and detectability improves model performance. Low genus richness and large basin area were consistently important determinants of low detection. Our occupancy models were most informative for taxa with high enough variation in observed pollen abundance for models to be adequately calibrated. We combined occupancy model estimates of pollen abundance and detectability with a Getis-Ord statistical approach to identify spatial clusters of high or low detectability, identifying regions where a taxon’s pollen is more (or less) reliable. This work will advance the integration of ecological and paleontological sciences by allowing us to better identify whether a pollen taxon is truly absent from a fossil site or if it has simply gone undetected, allowing us to produce more robust paleoecological models. This approach will bolster our ability to identify the responses of plant communities to past climatic and anthropogenic change so that we can improve our predictions of future responses.

Fossils and other paleontological information can improve phylogenetic comparative method estimates of phenotypic evolution and generate hypotheses related to species diversification. Here, we use fossil information to calibrate ancestral reconstructions of suitable climate for Sceloporus lizards in North America. Integrating data from the fossil record, general circulation models of paleoclimate during the Miocene, climate envelope modeling, and phylogenetic comparative methods provides a geographically and temporally explicit species distribution model of Sceloporus-suitable habitat through time. We provide evidence to support the historic biogeographic hypothesis of Sceloporus diversification in warm North American deserts and suggest a relatively recent Sceloporus invasion into Mexico around 6 Ma. We use a physiological model to map extinction risk. We suggest that the number of hours of restriction to a thermal refuge limited Sceloporus from inhabiting Mexico until the climate cooled enough to provide suitable habitat at approximately 6 Ma. If the future climate returns to the hotter climates of the past, Mexico, the place of highest modern Sceloporus richness, will no longer provide suitable habitats for Sceloporus to survive and reproduce.

Ecological communities and their response to environmental gradients are increasingly being described by measures of trait composition at the community level – the trait-based approach. Whether ecological or non-ecological processes influence trait composition between communities has been debated. Understanding the processes that influence trait composition is important for reconstructing paleoenvironmental conditions from fossil deposits and for understanding changes in community functionality through time. Here, we assess the influence of ecological and non-ecological processes on the distribution of traits within North American mammals. We found that non-ecological processes including historical contingency, spatial autocorrelation, and evolutionary history do not influence trait composition; however, the variance in trait composition is highly explained by climate gradients. Our results suggest that habitat breadth, terrestriality, diet breadth, and reproductive traits are strong candidates as proxies for measuring functional aspects of environments in the past and present.

Ecometrics is a trait-based approach to study ecosystem variability through time. An ecometric value is derived from describing the distribution of functional traits at the community level, which may arise by environmental filtering, extinction, or convergence. An ecometric relationship describes the correspondence between spatially explicit ecometric values and corresponding environmental variation. Transfer functions and maximum likelihood approaches have been developed with modern trait-environment relationships to reconstruct paleotemperature, paleoprecipitation, and paleovegetation cover given the distribution of functional traits within a community. Because the focus for this approach is on the traits and not on species, it is transferable through space and time and can be used to compare novel communities. In this paper we review the concepts and history of ecometric analysis and then describe practical methods for implementing an ecometric study.