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Salmonellosis is an important global foodborne disease caused by Salmonella enterica (S. enterica). Strains that are resistant to a variety of antibiotics were known to constitute major hazard to public health. The objectives of this study are to determine the serovar distributions, genomic antimicrobial resistance, prediction of genes conferring resistance to selected antibiotics, the multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), and plasmid replicon typing of “unassigned” S. enterica isolated from poultry. A total of 300 samples comprised of: post-mortem tissues (n = 150), cloacal swabs (n = 30), and poultry environment (n = 120) were aseptically collected and analyzed between January and June, 2017. Presumptive S. enterica isolates were characterized using conventional cultural methods, biochemical tests, and serotyping. The isolates were characterized, using Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) Method. Five “unassigned” S. enterica serovars were recovered from four matrices (liver, n = 1; water, n = 1; cloacal swab, n = 2; poultry feed, n = 1). Prediction of point mutation in parC (T57S) was reported in two strains which confer resistance to nalidixic acid; in addition to this, prediction of fosA7 that confers resistance to fosfomycin was identified in one of these strains. Three isolates each encoded plasmid mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) qnrB69 and bla-CMY-98 genes expected to confer decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and resistance to ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, cefoxitin, and ceftriaxone, respectively. Three sequence types, ST-6111, 6114 and 7073 were detected. None of the isolates harbored plasmid replicon. This study highlights the importance of “unassigned” S. enterica serovars in the emergence and spread of S. enterica in poultry. There is a need for the establishment of national collaborative Salmonella program to further investigate the pathogenic and public health risk to humans, of “unassigned” S. enterica serovars in Nigeria.

Poultry salmonellosis caused by Salmonella enterica is one of the most important bacterial diseases posing serious challenges to poultry production and human health worldwide. This study investigated the occurrence, serotypes, multilocus sequence types (MLSTs), antimicrobial resistance, plasmids, and 12 selected virulence genes of non-typhoidal Salmonella from poultry layer farms using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) methods. Two hundred cloaca swab samples were aseptically collected from four commercial poultry farms (layers) and transferred in sterile universal bottles on ice to the laboratory for analysis. Presumptive Salmonella isolates were detected with selective media and conventional biochemical tests. Serovars were confirmed by serotyping using the slide agglutination and Seqsero methods. Seven samples were positive for Salmonella consisting of Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) (n = 4), S. Albany (n = 2), and S. Agama with an occurrence rate of 3.5 % (7/200). Overall, 3 isolates showed the parC mutation expected not to cause resistance. Similarly, one S. Typhimurium isolate carried plasmid replicons of IncFIB(S)/IncFII(S) type without antimicrobial resistance genes. Three sequence types (STs); 19 (S. Typhimurium), 5317 (S. Albany), and 467 (S. Agama) were obtained. Salmonella Agama harboured 12 virulence genes, while S. Typhimurium and S. Albany harboured 11 virulence genes each. This study highlights the importance of S. Typhimurium, S. Albany, and S. Agama as major pathogens associated with poultry farms in Ilorin, north-central Nigeria. It equally provided baseline information on the serovar distribution, STs, resistance and the virulence gene profiles of all the serovars. Therefore, chickens can serve as a potential source of Salmonella transmission to humans, and this constitutes a potential health risk to the human population. Hence, there is a need for a specific Salmonella control program to be instituted as part of a national food safety strategy.

Background: Non-typhoidal Salmonella are major foodborne pathogens, posing serious challenges to public health and food safety worldwide. Salmonellosis in humans is commonly associated with the consumption of contaminated food, water, and direct contact with infected animals. This study aimed to characterize the distribution, diversity, virulence genotypes and antibiotic resistance of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Nigeria, isolated from farm animals in north central Nigeria.Results: We recovered 9 different S. enterica ser. Nigeria isolates from our sampling, eight from pig and one from chicken. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing against 15 antimicrobial agents showed variable resistance profiles. Whole genome sequence (WGS) analysis revealed that all 9 isolates contained a single mutation parC (T57S) substitution in addition to qnrB19, expected to confer decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and tet(A) expected to confer resistance to tetracycline. Furthermore, two plasmid targets were also detected in all the strains, Col(pHAD28) and IncQ1. MLST analysis showed that all 9 isolates exhibited only one sequence type, (ST-4911) irrespective of the source of isolation. A SNP-based phylogeny indicates that the 9 isolates are highly related and lack other close relatives in the pathogen detection database.Forty core (housekeeping) and accessory virulence genes were identified from different virulence loci including Salmonella Pathogenicity Islands, virulence associated plasmids (pSV), chromosomes and fimbriae. Conclusion: This study provided valuable information on the resistance determinants, virulence genes, phenotypic resistance profiles, plasmids and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of Salmonella Nigeria from food animals by WGS. Highlighting the significance of poultry and pig to the spread and emergence of Salmonella Nigeria in this region of Nigeria, therefore, there is the need for consumer's education and enlightenments on the importance of proper handling and preparation of food, this will reduce the potential risk of transmission of this pathogen.

Salmonella enterica is a foodborne pathogen of global public health importance with developing countries mostly affected. Foodborne outbreaks are often attributed to pork consumption and Salmonella contamination of retail pork is directly linked to the Salmonella prevalence on farm. The widespread use of antimicrobials at different steps of swine production can favor resistant strains of Salmonella. The objectives of this study are to characterize the distribution, multilocus sequence typing (MLST), plasmid, virulence profiles and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella serovars circulating in selected pig farms. Six hundred fecal samples were randomly collected from nine selected farms in Ilorin, Nigeria. Isolates were analyzed by cultural isolation using selective media, conventional biochemical characterization, serotyping, MLST and whole genome sequencing (WGS). Sixteen samples were positive for Salmonella sub-species, comprising of nine serovars. The antimicrobial susceptibility results revealed low-level resistance against 13 antimicrobial agents. Five strains exhibited resistance to nalidixic acid and intermediate resistance to ciprofloxacin with chromosomal (double) mutation at gyrA and parC while four strains possessed single mutation in parC. Salmonella Kentucky showed double mutation each at gyrA and parC. WGS analysis, revealed eight diverse sequence types (STs), the most common STs were ST-321 and ST-19 (n = 4) exhibited by S. Muenster and S. Typhimurium, respectively. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)-based phylogeny analysis showed the 16 isolates to be highly related and fell into 8 existing clusters at NCBI Pathogen Detection. Curtailing the spread of resistant strains will require the establishment of continuous surveillance program at the state and national levels in Nigeria. This study provides useful information for further studies on antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in foodborne Salmonella species.

Aim This study aimed at determining the serotypes, antimicrobial profiles, and public health importance of Salmonella strains from camels slaughtered at Maiduguri central abattoir, Nigeria. Materials and methods Two hundred samples were obtained from camel comprising of intestines, feces, liver, and spleen (n=50 each). Non-lactose fermenting dark center Salmonella colonies were identified using standard biochemical techniques, serotyped and subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility test using minimum inhibition concentration method. Results Out of the 200 samples collected, 17 were Salmonella positive (spleen=7, intestine=6, feces=3, and liver=1) with a prevalence of 8.5%. Five serotypes comprising Salmonella Eko, 7 (3.5%), Salmonella Uganda, 4 (2.0%), Salmonella Amager, 2 (1.0%), Salmonella Westhampton, 2 (1.0%), and Salmonella Give, 2 (1.0%) were incriminated. Majority of the serotypes were sensitive to the antimicrobials, but one Salmonella Amager exhibited resistance to streptomycin, and one each of Salmonella Uganda and Salmonella Eko were resistant to sulfamethoxazole. Conclusion This study revealed the prevalence and the antibiotic resistance profile of newly emerging Salmonella from camels in the northeast of Nigeria, which can serve as a means for the transmission of Salmonella to human. Therefore, there is a need for the establishment of national Salmonella surveillance and control programs.

Aim This study was desingned to examine the efficacy of ethyl acetate fraction of aqueous extracted Psidium guajava leaves on chicks experimentally-infected with diarrheagenic strain of Escherichia coli O78. Methods A total of 60 ISA brown male chicks were randomly divided into 6 Groups of ten chicks each in separate cages. Group A was not infected and not treated. Groups B, C and D were infected and treated with extracts at a dose of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg respectively for 10 days. Group E was infected and treated with oxytetracycline while Group F was infected, but left untreated. Chicks from all groups were closely monitored for clinical signs, body weight change and fecal bacterial shedding load during the course of the experiment. Results Diarrhea, vents pasted with feces, drop in feed intake accompanied by slow weight gain and decreased activity was observed in infected untreated groups. Groups treated with graded doses of the extract experienced a dose-dependent decreased in severity of the clinical signs shown compared to the infected untreated group. Bacterial shedding load was found to be lower in groups treated with the extract and oxytetracycline than those without intervention. Conclusion Ethyl acetate soluble fraction of leaf extract of Psidium guajava effectively controlled diarrhea and decreased the severity of other clinical signs caused by experimental E. coli infections in chicks.

Avian tuberculosis is a chronic disease caused mainly by Mycobacterium avium in birds. The disease has a worldwide distribution affecting primarily adult birds because of its long incubation period, making it a common disease in zoo and breeding establishments. Mycobacterium avium is highly resistant to environmental challenges and can survive in soil for up to 4 years. It is spread by ingestion of food or water contaminated by faeces from birds which shed the organism. Despite the low zoonotic risk, the disease is more likely to affect human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) patients and other immunocompromised individuals. Mycobacterium avium causes serious disseminated bacterial infection in up to 40% of patients with advanced HIV infection indicating its public health importance as a disease. Control of the disease poses a serious challenge, owing to the presence of the disease in wildlife. This review covers the general knowledge on avian tuberculosis, diagnostic methods, zoonotic implications and challenges faced in the control and eradication of the disease.

The field trial of a candidate thermostable Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) vaccine was carried out in flocks of sheep and goats under the extensive system of management. The immune response of vaccinated animals was determined using the neutralisation test to detect PPR virus specific antibody. Vaccinated animals seroconverted and a four-fold or more rise in antibody titre were observed between pre-vaccination and post-vaccination antibodies. The vaccine elicited significant antibody response in goats through the different routes of administration (intramuscular, intranasal, intraocular, subcutaneous and orally), but was poorly transmitted between the vaccinees and in-contact animals. The sheep responded poorly to the vaccine administered through most of the routes, except for those vaccinated through intramuscular and subcutaneous routes that seroconverted significantly (≥4 fold rise). The vaccine retained a potent titre of 3.1 log10 TCID50 for more than 8 hours after reconstitution in PBS at room temperature. Based on the response of goats to oral vaccination, it is suggested that the vaccine could be administered on the field through the oral routes and has the potential to be adapted to a feed-based administration for wider application to the scattered livestock populations under the extensive system of management.

Drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB) is a challenge in the treatment and eradication of TB worldwide. Over the years, resistance to the treatment of TB emerged as a result of poor management of the disease. The benefits of rapid diagnosis for TB and drug resistance in patients are enormous, particularly with regard to increased chances of the patients' survival and decrease in the possible spread and acquisition of drug-resistant TB. This review highlights the mutational genes responsible for resistance for each of the drugs and the various methods used in detecting drug-resistant TB. This review shed more light on the available techniques, their merits and demerits. Studies have shown advancement in this area but the high cost of using molecular techniques, which provides timely results in the detecting of multi-drug-resistant TB and extensively drug-resistant TB still poses challenges for developing countries. Unfortunately, it can take months to detect TB and drug-resistant TB using the conventional methods which is quite cumbersome and poses a risk to both the patient and the public due to delay in appropriate commencement of treatment. Also, the use of endorsed liquid culture medium such as the microscopic-observation drug and nitrate reductase assay is still a challenge to developing nations. A lot has been done in the treatment and diagnosis of drug-resistant TB but more needs to be done especially in the developing countries in order to curtail the menace of drug-resistant TB.

Evaluation of human and animal health surveillance programs is currently lacking in most developing countries including sub-Saharan Africa. To evaluate the burden of salmonellosis and antimicrobial resistance status in developing countries, we need to identify the sources, serovar distribution and the prevalence of Salmonella to guide in the formulation of control program. This study was undertaken to determine the prevailing Salmonella serovars, the occurrence and the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica recovered from fish. Stratified random sampling was carried out in 2009 on 200 fish samples. All the isolates were biochemically characterized and presumptive Salmonella isolates were serotyped using standard procedure and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). A total of 23 isolates were positive for Salmonella out of the 200 samples (11.5%) analyzed, three different serovars comprising Salmonella serovars Hadar, 47: mt:-, and Eko were obtained. Generally, the antimicrobial resistance profile was low; however Salmonella Hadar showed a high level of resistance to the antimicrobial agents. Salmonella serovars; Hadar, 47: mt:- and Eko are the pathogens associated with fish contamination in Maiduguri, North eastern Nigeria and constitute serious health risks for the human population and need to be controlled by targeted interventions.

Aim To identify the sources of Salmonella contamination, distribution, prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns, which have significant impact on public and animal health, and international trade. Methods and Results A total of 1888 samples were collected by stratified random sampling from 2009 to 2011 from cattle, camels, poultry, fish, vegetables and humans. All identified Salmonella isolates were serotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility by MIC determinations. A total of 149 Salmonella isolates comprising 17 different serovars were obtained (7·9% prevalence). Salmonella Hadar (37%), S. Eko (17%), S. Enteritidis (10%), S. Kentucky (7%) and S. Uganda (7%) were isolated from different sources. The occurrence of antimicrobial resistance was generally low, but S. Enteritidis and S. Eko showed variable antimicrobial resistance patterns, while all S. Kentucky isolates were resistant to seven of 17 tested antimicrobials, including ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid. Three S. Hadar isolates revealed reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and susceptibility to nalidixic acid and harboured the plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance gene qnrS1. Conclusions Salmonella serovars Hadar, Enteritidis and the previously very rarely reported Eko were the major serovars associated with human infections, animal and environmental contamination in the north-eastern region of Nigeria. Significance and Impact of the Study These serovars constitute a health risk to poultry, environment and human population in the region.

Background Trematode infections of livestock are of global veterinary and public health importance causing serious economic losses. Majority of data on burden of trematode infections in Nigeria are based on abattoir surveys and there are very few data on herd level risk factors. The present study investigated the prevalence of, and herd level risk factors for, fasciolosis and other trematode infections in cattle in Edu Local Government Area (LGA). Methods A cross-sectional survey used two-stage study design to investigate cattle belonging to 65 households. Two questionnaires were administered for household-level and individual cattle-level data. Faecal and blood samples were obtained from the cattle. Logistic regression analyses were performed to determine risk factors for infections. Results Of 686 faecal samples analysed, 74.9 %, 16.1 %, 7.3 % and 1.2 % were positive for infections with Fasciola gigantica, paramphistomes, Dicrocoelium hospes and Schistosoma bovis respectively. Fasciola gigantica had higher prevalence in adult cattle (77.3 %) than weaners (62.5 %). Majority of co-infections was a combination of F. gigantica with paramphistomes 84/130 (64.6 %). Most (58.9 %) of the cattle belonged to FAMACHA© score 2. The mean packed cell volume (PCV) was 34.4 %. The sensitivity and specificity of FAMACHA© for anaemia (PCV F. gigantica and paramphistomes (R = 0.15, P = 0.0001). Adult cattle were more likely to be infected with F. gigantica (odds ratio, OR: 1.94; Confidence Interval, CI: 1.19–3.16) than weaners. Cattle belonging to household heads aged between 40–59 years were more likely infected with paramphistomes (OR: 1.95; CI: 1.02–3.74) than those belonging to other age groups. Cattles from herds with size ≥ 100 were more likely infected with D. hospes than those from smaller herds (OR: 6.98; CI: 2.94–16.6). Conclusion This study revealed high prevalence of infection with F. gigantica in Kwara State. The co-infections by F. gigantica and paramphistomes with a positive correlation should be considered during anthelmintic therapy. There is a need to optimise and validate the FAMACHA© for use in cattle based on breeds and variation in colour of ocular mucous membrane. Risk factors identified could assist in tailoring control strategies for various trematode infections to particular groups of farmers and cattle.

The seroprevalence and maternal antibody profiles to Newcastle disease virus infection of guinea fowls were studied using haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test, in Borno and Yobe States of Nigeria. Of 822 sera and 354 egg yolk extracts tested, 327 (39.8%) and 242 (68.4%) were positive for NDV antibodies respectively. The seroprevalence was significantly higher (P< 0.05) in the dry (47%) than in the rainy (32.8%) seasons. Maternal antibodies in egg yolk extract (sampled during the rainy season), were significantly (P< 0.05) higher (68.4%) than the seroprevalence. The frequency distribution of antibody titers were skewed with 79.8% and 63.2 % of sera and egg yolk respectively having reciprocal antibody titres ≤ 20. The geometric mean antibody titre was higher (P< 0.05) in the dry season (3.7±2.0) than in the rainy season (2.5 ±1.7). The geometric mean titre was also higher (P

Twenty-six Salmonella enterica serovar Eko isolated from various sources in Nigeria were investigated by whole genome sequencing to identify the source of human infections. Diversity among the isolates was observed and camel and cattle were identified as the primary reservoirs and the most likely source of the human infections.

Aim: To know the prevalence of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) strains among adult apparently healthy rural chickens slaughtered in Maiduguri, north-eastern Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Cloacal swabs were examined by Gram staining, biochemical tests such as indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer and citrate (IMVC) tests and serotype by standard slide agglutination test with antisera against somatic antigen using six monospecific “O” antisera to E. coli belonging to the avian pathogenic E. coli group namely O1, O2, O26, O78, O86 and O141. The sensitivity of the isolated APEC strains to 10 antibiotics of human and veterinary use was also determined. Results: Out of a total of 510 samples examined, 356 (69.8%) were positive for E. coli. Of this number 20 (5.6%) samples were positive for O1, 20 (5.6%) for O2, 0 (0%) for O26, 25 (7.0%) for O78, 25 (7.0%) for O86 and 24 (6.7%) for O141 serotypes. The remaining 242 (68.0%) E. coli isolates were non typable with the 6 sera of avian pathogenic E. coli strains used for the study. The sensitivity profile of the isolates showed complete resistance of all the isolates against ampicillin, tetracycline, nalidixic acid and cefuroxime, while on the other hand all the isolates showed very high susceptibility to oxofloxacin followed by ciprofloxacin and gentamycin. The result of this study suggests that multiple-antimicrobial-resistant APEC isolates are present in rural chickens in Maiduguri, north-eastern Nigeria. In addition to animal health problems created by the resistant strains, there may also be potential danger posed to human health because these strains could easily infect humans through the food chain. Conclusion: The result of this study suggests that multiple-antimicrobial-resistant APEC isolates are present in rural chickens in Maiduguri, north-eastern Nigeria. Consequently, introduction of surveillance programs to monitor antimicrobial resistance of pathogenic bacteria is strongly recommended in Nigeria. [Vet. World 2012; 5(6.000): 325-329]

2 Abstract: A d escriptive cross sectional study was carried out to assess certain management and health practices in some selected poultry establishments in Ilorin, Kwara state with the view to improving poultry production. Structured questionnaires were distributed via the Poultry Association of Nigeria (PAN), Kwara state chapter. The mean age of respondents was 47.93(±12.397) years. Majority (60.5%) of the respondents were large holder farmers with greater than 200 birds; Deep litter (48.7%) was the most practiced management system. Almost half 48.5% of the respondents administered all the recommended vaccines. Commercial feed was the most widely used (68.4%). Veterinarian (39.5%) and Retail Vendors (39.5%) were the source of poultry stock. About 35.1% did not use any form of protective clothing on farms. About 36.8% of respondents disposed waste by use as manure. 42.1% of respondents routinely consulted Veterinarian. Coccidiosis reported by about one third (33.3%) of respondent was identified as the most common disease outbreak followed by IBD (24.2%) and NCD (21.2%). Veterinary clinic (35.1%) and fellow farmer (32%) were the most important source of information on poultry. The Chi-square analysis revealed management system (p

Coccidial infection is a common feature in most African fishes. As a result of the chronic nature of the disease in fish, mortality is gradual ( Kim and Paperna, 1993a ) and is often overlooked in most farms, with losses becoming evident only at the end of the production cycle. This study evaluates the tissue responses of Clarias gariepinus (Catfish) in an experimental infection with Eimeria subepithelialis using 200 laboratory-bred Juveniles. Four groups (A, B, C and D) of 50 Juveniles each were preconditioned for 2 weeks. Groups A and B were infected per os with 200 E. subepithelialis sporocysts per juvenile, while groups C and D served as uninfected controls. At the onset of demonstrable oocysts in liver and spleen tissues, groups B and C were treated for a week in AmproliumR dip (0.6 mg/L) at the rate of 1 h a day. Five fish from each group were culled at intervals of 3 days to study the tissue responses to infection. At gross pathological level, intestinal and testicular congestion, splenomegaly and hepatomegaly were the common features of the infection. Histological lesions in the infected and treated group (group B) were confined to the small intestine while extra-intestinal lesions were seen in the infected and untreated fish (group A). The presence of pathological lesions in tissues, following experimental infection of C. gariepinus with E. subepithelialis sporocysts, indicated that the parasite is pathogenic to the catfish. Contrary to coccidiosis of terrestrial animals, sporulation of oocysts in piscine coccidiosis appeared to occur endogenously within the host. The use of Amprolium in the control of piscine coccidiosis is effective only when used early in the course of the infection, prior to onset of clinical signs. Proper certification of brooder and replacement stock, improved plane of nutrition and adequate stocking density are recommended aquacultural practices that may minimize the incidence of visceral coccidiosis in cultured fish.

3 Abstract: A questionnaire-based survey was conducted to investigate early chick mortality and its causes during the first two weeks on small-scale poultry farms in Jos, central Nigeria. The survey covered layer and broiler farms procuring day-old chicks from three selected hatcheries. Flock sizes varied from 20 birds up to 2000. Average mortality was 10.4 per flock with a standard deviation of 14.4. As a percentage of flock size, mortality was 11.4% with a standard deviation of 18.8%. The major causes of mortality were stress, Pullorum disease and diarrhoea. There was no significant relationship (p = 0.01, R = 0.02) between flock size and 2

3 Abstract: A questionnaire-based survey was conducted to investigate chick mortality at hatching in three commercial hatcheries in and around Jos, central Nigeria. Mortality was defined as the sum of dead chicks, dead-in-shell embryos and culls due to various other reasons. There was a large variation in culling rates due to poor hatching. The major reasons for culling were dead-in-shell embryos, weak chicks, dead chicks, omphalitis and physical abnormalities such as incomplete feathering, weak limbs, distorted beaks and wetness. There was no significant correlation between the age of breeding flock and percentage of cull s indicating that culling rate was not strongly influenced by the age of breeding flock. Although, factors contributing to poor hatching include management and incubation failures, the most probable cause of abnormalities, weak chicks and omphalitis are diseased breeder flocks or poor hygiene and sanitation in hatchery operations. Two of the hatcheries used a combination of formaldehyde and iodine for disinfection but hygiene standards were compromised due to inadequate cleaning in all three hatcheries. The poor hatch experienced in this study suggests that there is considerable room for improvement in hatchery operations particularly with regards to hygiene and sanitation. Adequate training of hatchery operators in understanding the crucial role hygiene plays in ensuring high chick quality is needed.

A study was carried out to investigate on the ownership pattern and involvement in rearing activities of family members among the various household in West Province of Cameroon and some parts of Borno state, Nigeria. This survey focused mainly on the effects of gender on ownership and management responsibilities. With regards to gender and flock ownership pattern the study showed that women and children owned the majority of flocks (53% and 27%) in West Province of Cameroon respectively, whereas, men accounted for 20% ownership, however, the reverse was found to be the case in Borno state where men possessed (56%) followed by women (39%) and children (11%). Although all gender categories were involved in village chicken rearing activities, children had the highest responsibilities and these include shutting down the chicken in at night and letting the chicken out in the morning in West Province of Cameroon, while in Borno state is the women that has the highest responsibilities. Feeding, watering and hygiene maintenance were found to be combined responsibilities of women and children in both areas. The village chickens were housed mostly in the Kitchen (53%) in the West Province of Cameroon, whereas in Borno state mud /thatch house is the commonly used (32%) form of shelter for birds. In terms of supplementary feeds given to the village chickens maize and food scraps were mostly given in West Province of Cameroon, while millet bran followed by maize and food scrap/millet were predominantly used in Borno state Nigeria in that order. The study further showed that village chickens were not kept in specialized housing, they were often provided with simple structure to protect them from weather elements. Women and children are found to be the most convenient and the fastest means of channeling technology for improving rural chicken production in the study area.

The role of technology as a major player in economic growth of any country cannot be overemphasized. In this paper typical problems in technology transfer faced by poor developing countries will be highlighted. This will be attempted by looking at three countries: Japan, a developed country; Malaysia, a newly industrialising country; and Malawi, a small developing country and one of the world's poorest. With little industrialisation, little economic growth is to be expected, and this coupled with poverty, effective technology transfer (automation) is less likely. These countries could therefore remain poor. Such is the dilema of the poor developing countries.

DNA vaccines which work in winter are needed for fish. At 18 weeks after intramuscular injection of a plasmid containing lacZ goldfish at 15 degrees C had five-fold more antibody to betagalactosidase than those at 25 degrees C or those at/=9 degrees C. Expression persisted for 1 week at 25 degrees C and for 4 weeks at 15 degrees C. Expression was highest after 18 weeks at/=9 degrees C and was correlated to antibody titre in this group. Goldfish on low or high rations (0.33 or 3% body weight daily) made the same amount of antibody whilst losing 20% or gaining 50% of their body-weight over 2 months at 22 degrees C.

Vaccination still remains the most widely used method of controlling infectious diseases in both humans and animals. In view of this, considerable research effort is being devoted to the discovery of new vaccines, and to the refinement of existing ones, with the aim of making them safer, cheaper, and above all, more efficacious. Among the novel developments in vaccine technology is the use of naked DNA encoding the relevant immunogenic component of pathogens, which has been shown to confer protection on animals. Several advantages, such as stability, stimulation of both cellular and humoral immune responses, and antigen expression over prolonged periods, make DNA vaccines an attractive alternative to conventional ones. This paper highlights the progress made so far with the new technology in terms of its immunogenicity, concerns regarding its safety, and future research directions.

A plasmid that contained the cytomegalovirus (CMV)-promoter-driven lacZ reporter gene (pCMV-lacZ) remained in the epaxial muscle of five of eight goldfish as covalently closed circles, the most functional form of plasmid, for at least 70 days at 22 degrees. It was not present in the gills or elsewhere by polymerase chain reaction and was not integrated. Its expressed protein, Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase (beta-gal), which was in the injected myofibres, was detected in all the fish at 4-21 days and in about half the fish from 28 days until the end of the experiment at 70 days. The numbers of cells that secreted antibody to beta-gal in the kidney peaked at 14 days. Serum antibody and proliferating kidney cells to beta-gal were in all fish from 14 days with a plateau of the responses from 21 days onwards. The plasmid did not induce autoimmune-like antibodies to itself or to single- or double-stranded salmon testis DNA. Plasmids can therefore induce long-term foreign protein expression whilst inducing humoral and cell-mediated immunity without autoimmunity or integration in goldfish.

Introduction: This study investigated the antimicrobial resistance and clonality of Salmonella enterica serotype Kentucky in poultry and poultry sources in Nigeria, and compared the isolates with the clone of S. Kentucky STI98-X1 CIPR using (PFGE) and (MIC). Methodology: Fecal samples from chickens and poultry sources (litter, water, rodent and lizard fecal samples) were collected from fourteen (14) poultry farms in 2007, 2010 and 2011 and were analyzed for S. Kentucky. Results and conclusions: Six percent of the samples were positive for S. Kentucky – all resistant to nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin. The isolates are grouped within the PFGE cluster X1 of S. Kentucky STI98 CIPR, indicating the association to the emerging and widely spread CIPR S. Kentucky clone with poultry and poultry sources.

The prevalence of bacterial species in each of 103 clinically unaffected and affected caprine udders in the Sahel zone of Nigeria was investigated. A total of 11 genera of bacteria were isolated from unaffected and affected udders. Of the 39 bacterial species isolated from the udders, Acinetobacter anitratus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pasteurella haemolytica and Staphylococcus aureus occurred significantly (P

No Abstract

The prevalence of Salmonella associated mortality at hatching was investigated in three hatcheries in Jos, central Nigeria. Their susceptibility to antimicrobial agents was also evaluated. S. Kentucky and S. Hadar were isolated. While half of the isolates were from internal organs, 26.7% came from meconial swabs of dead-in-shell embryos, 17.8% from intestinal samples and 4.4% from egg shells. S. Hadar is known to colonise only the gut and is classified as non-invasive, but in this study 82% were obtained from internal organs which suggests that infections with this serotype may also cause invasive disease. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests showed a high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in the study area with complete resistance to gentamycin, enrofloxacin, nalidixic acid, tetracycline and streptomycin and substantial resistance to triple sulphur and ciprofloxacin. Six multiple resistance profiles were recorded with a high level of multiple resistance to quinolones. Quinolone resistance has implications for veterinary and human therapy as their misuse in poultry could lead to the emergence of resistant animal and zoonotic pathogens.

A total of 186 blood and urine samples were aseptically collected from patients attending two major hospitals and diagnostic Laboratories in Maiduguri metropolis, Nigeria between October, 2011 and January, 2012. One mililitre each of blood was collected from brachial vein with the aid of a sterile syringe, and early morning midstream voided urine was dispensed into a sterile sample bottle containing 9ml of peptone water and incubated at 370C for 24-48 hours. Isolation of Salmonella was carried out by using Deoxycholate agar (DCA) and Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) plates. Antibiotic susceptibility test was performed by disc diffusion technique using Mueller Hinton agar in accordance with standard technique. Seven, 7 (3.8%) were positive for Salmonella. The study revealed no significant difference (p>0.05) in the prevalence of Salmonella bacteremia in males with 3 (3.8%) and females 4 (3.8%). All the isolates were susceptible to compound Sulphonamides and resistance to antibiotics was in varying proportions with 43.0% developing resistance to each of Ciprofloxacin, Streptomycin and Tetracycline, 71.4% to Chloramphenicol, 28.6% to Nalidixic acid and Gentamycin and 14.3% to Sulphamethoxazole/Trimethoprim. None of the isolates was sensitive to Ampicillin and Cefotaxim. Salmonella bacteremia is more prevalent among aged people (≥50years), followed by children below 20years and least among young adult of between 20 to 50years. There was overall susceptibility to compound Sulphonamides and resistances to antibiotics vary with the antimicrobials used. None of the isolates was sensitive to Ampicillin and Cefotaxim. It is recommended that a policy should be instituted to monitor and control the prescription drugs in health institutions and prohibition of sale of antimicrobials without medical prescription.

Objectives: This study was designed to investigate the Sero-prevalence of Schistosoma species in cattle in Maiduguri Metropolis (MMC) and Jere Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Borno State, Nigeria. Materials and Method: Blood samples (n=200) from cattle were collected using a multistage sampling technique; 100 samples each were collected from MMC and Jere LGAs, respectively. The samples were subjected to screening for Schistosoma antibodies using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Age, sex, breed and location of cattle were recorded. Results: The overall prevalence of Schistosoma infection among cattle in MMC and Jere LGAs was 10%. Jere LGA had a prevalence rate of 14% and MMC had 6%. At the ward levels, Custom Area in Jere LGA had the highest number of Schistosoma positive (50%). Out of 103 female and 97 male cattle screened, the prevalence of Schistosoma infection in female and male were 9.71% (n=10/103) and 10.31% (n=10/103). Out of the 177 serum samples from cattle aging >1-year (adult) examined, 16 (9.04%) were positive, while only 4 (17.39%) out of 23 serum samples from cattle aging

Poultry industry is one of the fastest growing segments in the agricultural sector and undoubtedly, it plays an important role in the Nigerian economy. However, the growth of this profitable sub sector is threatened by a number of factors critical among which is the quality of day-old-chicks supplied to farmers. The quality of day-old-chicks has a tremendous effects on the growing pattern and consequently on the final performance of the flock. Therefore, it has become necessary that day-old-chicks supply to farmers should be given proper assessment to determine their quality to reduce financial losses, which could result from purchase of poor quality day-old-chicks. This paper highlights the various methods used for the assessment of day-old-chick's quality and made recommendations for quality control of the products for the sustainability of the poultry industry in Nigeria. Keywords : Chick quality, assessment methods, poultry industry, Nigeria. Nigerian Veterinary Journal Vol. 27 (2) 2006: pp. 1-6

A six-year retrospective survey of poultry diseases presented to veterinary clinics in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria between January 1995 and December 2000 was conducted. Out of a total of 23,813 poultry cases, 18,304 (76.9%) and 5,509 (23.1%) cases were recorded at the State Veterinary Clinic (SVC) Maiduguri and Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) University of Maiduguri respectively. Out of the 18,304 cases presented at the SVC, viral diseases constituted about 44%, bacterial infections were 19.7%, parasitic infestations were 28.7% while non-infectious conditions were 8.7%. Similarly, out of the 5,509 cases recorded at the VTH University of Maiduguri, viral diseases were 69.9%, bacterial diseases were 10.7%, while parasitic and non-infectious conditions were 15.4% and 4.5% respectively. Among the viral diseases encountered, Newcastle disease (ND) and infectious bursal disease (IBD) were the most important while fowl cholera and coccidiosis formed the major bacterial and parasitic diseases respectively. A successful development of control and preventive measures can only be achieved after a careful assessment of each condition is carried out. Key Words: Poultry health problems, semi-arid, retrospective study, Nigeria. Trop. Vet. Vol. 21: (3) 138-145 (2003)

A survey of disease conditions of dogs presented to the small animal unit of the University of Maiduguri Veterinary Teaching Hospital, between January 1986 and December 1990, was undertaken. A total of 559 cases was recorded during this period and these were divided into 13 groups according to the distribution of the following conditions: Ectoparasitism 21.1 per cent, helminthiasis 20.4 per cent, vaccination requests 13.4 per cent, trauma 11.1 per cent, orthopaedic problems 7.9 per cent, protozoan infections 6.3 per cent, castration 3.9 per cent, dermatitis 3.6 per cent, pneumonia 3.6 per cent, obstetrical problems 3.2 per cent, viral infections 2.5 per cent, cosmetic surgery 1.6 per cent and neoplasm (transmissible venereal tumour) 1.4 per cent.

A eukaryotic plasmid DNA carrying the AACGTT CpG motif in its ampR gene is a 'danger' signal for mice and caused an increase in the specific antibody titres of fish and mice after immunization with beta-galactosidase (beta-gal). A second pUC-based plasmid, which is inactive in mice and contains the GACGTC CpG motif in its cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter, had no effect on antibody responses to beta-gal in either fish or mice. A synthetic oligonucleotide, which contains the GACGTT motif, potentiated antibody responses to co-administered beta-gal protein in mice, but not in fish. This is early evidence that lower and higher vertebrates recognize different unmethylated CpG motifs as 'danger' signals. In addition, plasmid DNA expressing mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) had a marked effect on cytotoxic T-cell-like activity in fish by reducing the average number of myofibres that expressed beta-gal, 28 days after co-injection with plasmid DNA expressing beta-gal. Although the mechanism by which the mouse GM-CSF exerted its biological effects in fish is unknown, this finding might have important implications for fish vaccination, particularly when cytotoxic T cells may play a critical role.

The effect of oral administration of ethyl acetate fraction of Psidium guajava aqueous leaf extract on tissue histology and red blood cell values was investigated in chickens. The study involved use of male chicks of ISA brown cockerel breed that were orally exposed to the extract acutely to determine the median lethal dose and daily sub-lethal dose were administered for 28 days and effects on body weight, red blood cell parameters and tissue histology was evaluated. In acute toxicity study, single oral arithmetic doses of the extract were given to test groups with the control group given normal saline. The oral LD50 was calculated to be 1800 mg/kg bd. wt. For the effect of prolonged administration of the fraction, daily administration of graded doses of the extract were given to test groups for 28 days and a control group was given normal saline. There was significant (P

Aim: To know the prevalence of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) strains among adult apparently healthy rural chickens slaughtered in Maiduguri, north-eastern Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Cloacal swabs were examined by Gram staining, biochemical tests such as indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer and citrate (IMVC) tests and serotype by standard slide agglutination test with antisera against somatic antigen using six monospecific “O” antisera to E. coli belonging to the avian pathogenic E. coli group namely O1, O2, O26, O78, O86 and O141. The sensitivity of the isolated APEC strains to 10 antibiotics of human and veterinary use was also determined. Results: Out of a total of 510 samples examined, 356 (69.8%) were positive for E. coli. Of this number 20 (5.6%) samples were positive for O1, 20 (5.6%) for O2, 0 (0%) for O26, 25 (7.0%) for O78, 25 (7.0%) for O86 and 24 (6.7%) for O141 serotypes. The remaining 242 (68.0%) E. coli isolates were non typable with the 6 sera of avian pathogenic E. coli strains used for the study. The sensitivity profile of the isolates showed complete resistance of all the isolates against ampicillin, tetracycline, nalidixic acid and cefuroxime, while on the other hand all the isolates showed very high susceptibility to oxofloxacin followed by ciprofloxacin and gentamycin. The result of this study suggests that multiple-antimicrobial-resistant APEC isolates are present in rural chickens in Maiduguri, north-eastern Nigeria. In addition to animal health problems created by the resistant strains, there may also be potential danger posed to human health because these strains could easily infect humans through the food chain. Conclusion: The result of this study suggests that multiple-antimicrobial-resistant APEC isolates are present in rural chickens in Maiduguri, north-eastern Nigeria. Consequently, introduction of surveillance programs to monitor antimicrobial resistance of pathogenic bacteria is strongly recommended in Nigeria.

Avian infectious bronchitis (AIB) is an economically important disease of chickens. Recent studies have revealed enterotropism by at least one strain of AIB virus with pathological lesions in parts of the gut. This review highlights the findings of the studies so far made on this enterotropic strain of AIB virus.

The effects of oestrogen and progesterone on the re-excretion of IB virus strain G in chickens infected at day-old was evaluated in this study. Following infection of the chickens at day-old, the birds were swabbed regularly from the trachea and cloaca until no more virus was isolated from either site. Between 10 and 14 weeks of age oestrogen and progesterone were administered by intramuscular injection to infected or control chickens. An infected but non-hormone injected group was maintained. All the birds were monitored for virus re-excretion and/or increase in serum neutralising (SN) antibody levels during this period of treatment. Similar parameters, and the egg production of these birds were evaluated when they reached their natural sexual maturity. At the end of the experiment, the birds were sacrificed and their internal organs especially the reproductive organs were examined for any pathological lesions. The acute phase of the disease following infection at day-old was typical of IB virus infection in terms of clinical signs and virus excretions from trachea and cloaca [1]. The injected hormones failed to induce virus re-excretion as no virus was isolated during this period. There was no change in the level of antibody during this period either. However, when the hens attained their natural sexual maturity, IB virus was re-excreted by all the birds. Isolations was also more frequent from the cloaca than from the trachea. The SN antibody levels of individual showed no definite pattern to correspond with periods of re-excretion in the birds up to the end of the experiment. The control birds remained normal throughout the period of the study.

One-day-old specific-pathogen-free chicks were inoculated intranasally and intraocularly with infectious bronchitis virus (strain G). At days 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 14 postinfection, three birds were euthanatized, and the virus contents of both enteric tissues and some non-enteric tissues were assayed. Immunofluorescence and histopathological studies were also conducted. Six of 30 chicks died of nephritis between days 5-10 postinfection. Gross kidney lesions were the major pathological abnormalities. Inflammation was observed histologically in trachea, kidney, and rectum. High virus titers were found at various times in trachea, kidney, and all enteric tissues except for the jejunum. Relatively high titers of virus were still detectable at day 14 postinfection in the kidney, proventriculus, cecal tonsil, ileum, rectum, and bursa of Fabricius. Immunofluorescence staining showed viral antigens in enterocytes at the tips of villi in the ileum and rectum, and in the bursa. Viral antigens were also demonstrated in the epithelial cells of the trachea and in kidney tubules.

The in-vitro effects of three reproductive hormones (progesterone, oestrogen testosterone), and cortisone on the replication of infectious bronchitis (IB) virus strain G were investigated over a period of 36 hours using tracheal organ cultures as the culture system. The non-toxic concentration of each hormone for the culture system was first determined. These were found to be 3 micrograms/ml for progesterone, testosterone, and cortisone, and 1 micrograms/ml for oestrogen. The results were based on the assay of the extracellular virus production from both hormone treated and untreated infected cultures at specific intervals up to and including 36 hours. While oestrogen, testosterone, and cortisone were found to enhance the replication of the virus, no significant effect was noticed following treatment with progesterone.

One-day-old specific-pathogen-free chicks were inoculated intranasally and intraocularly with infectious bronchitis virus (strain G). At days 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 14 postinfection, three birds were euthanatized, and the virus contents of both enteric tissues and some non-enteric tissues were assayed. Immunofluorescence and histopathological studies were also conducted. Six of 30 chicks died of nephritis between days 5-10 postinfection. Gross kidney lesions were the major pathological abnormalities. Inflammation was observed histologically in trachea, kidney, and rectum. High virus titers were found at various times in trachea, kidney, and all enteric tissues except for the jejunum. Relatively high titers of virus were still detectable at day 14 postinfection in the kidney, proventriculus, cecal tonsil, ileum, rectum, and bursa of Fabricius. Immunofluorescence staining showed viral antigens in enterocytes at the tips of villi in the ileum and rectum, and in the bursa. Viral antigens were also demonstrated in the epithelial cells of the trachea and in kidney tubules.

Of six isolates of infectious bronchitis (IB) virus isolated from commercial poultry flocks in Morocco, five (designated D,E,F, H and M) were related serologically to the Massachusetts serotype, while a sixth, (designated G) was found to be different from any previously reported serotype of IB virus. Neutralising antibodies to this virus have been detected in the sera of commercial chicken flocks from a number of regions in Britain. While isolate G, in common with the other 5 isolates, caused respiratory disease typical of IB in 3-week old SPF chicks, it showed a particular predilection for the alimentary tract, and at various times up to 28 days could be isolated from all regions between oesophagus and bursa of Fabricus. Greatest persistence occurred in the anterior regions (oesophagus, proventriculus and duodenum).

Summary The first isolation and characterisation of infectious bronchitis (IB) viruses from poultry flocks in Morocco are reported. Five isolates designated D, E, F, H and M were related serologically to the Massachusetts serotype, while the sixth, isolate G, was found to be different from any previously reported serotype of IB virus. Neutralising antibodies to isolate G have been detected in sera collected from commercial flocks in Britain, although the virus has not been isolated. While all six isolates caused respiratory disease typical of IB in experimentally infected 3‐week‐old specified pathogen‐free (SPF) chickens, isolate G was unusual in that it could be isolated from several parts of the alimentary tract for up to 21 days post inoculation, and from the duodenum up to 28 days. H120 vaccines protected chicks challenged with isolates E and F but not isolate G.