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Despite ongoing advancements in sex offender risk assessments, the psychological dimensions of static risk assessments such as the Static-99R and the Static-2002R are still unclear. These tools are based on largely unchangeable and historical risk factors which have been empirically linked to recidivism. Whilst they hold moderate predictive validity, recent research has highlighted the need to identify psychologically meaningful constructs underpinning these tools. The current study has taken a novel approach to identify these constructs through examination of the cognitive, affective, and behavioural features of crime, utilising offender narrative frameworks. Forty men with convictions for sexual offences against children participated in this research and provided a personal account of their offences. They also completed questionnaires relating to the roles they assigned to themselves and their emotional experiences during the offence. The offender's interactions with the victim were investigated through their crime scene behaviour, as outlined in official documentation. Finally, their level of risk was determined using the Static-99R and Static-2002R. The analysis identified that the positive and aroused affective states are predictive of high scores on 'persistent paraphilia', as were criminal behaviours where the victim was behaviourally coerced and manipulated. Overall high scores on static risk were predicted by the offender physically controlling the victim through subjugation and objectification. Narratives, where the victim held little personal significance to the offender, were statistically correlated with high persistent paraphilia scores. A lack of agency on behalf of the offender was also associated with high-risk scores. This study is the first of its kind in investigating offenders' risk through their own criminal experiences, expressed in narrative form. Sexual violence is a complex and multidimensional construct, and these results suggest that narrative frameworks can provide fruitful insight into an offender's experiences, aiding in the conceptualisation of recidivism risk.

Age estimation remains one of the most challenging tasks for forensic practitioners when establishing the biological profile of unknown skeletonised remains. Morphological methods based on developmental markers of bones can provide accurate age estimates. Yet, these methods tend to be unreliable when the individuals are over 35 years of age as all the key developmental markers gradually disappear. Current methods are also highly population- and sex-specific, and individual differences must be considered when interpreting the results. Aspartic acid racemisation, radiocarbon dating and DNA-methylation have all shown to be accurate to only a margin of ± 5 years. A recent method using quantification of biomechanical properties in conjunction with bone microstructure for the mid-femur cortical bone has shown potential and a better accuracy. In the present research, analyses of samples from the 4th rib are detailed and a methodology for estimation of age of individuals is presented. The physical characteristics of ribs are less influenced by mechanical stress compared to weight bearing bones and ribs are relatively accessible from the thoracic cage during autopsy, which increases the applicability of any such rib-based method. This study exploits the changes in the biomechanical properties of bone tissue and matrix. These properties continue to change with age even after skeletal maturity and they are valuable for age estimation. The relationship of 28 variables at the macroscopic, microscopic and structural/compositional level were investigated in 113 ribs retrieved during autopsies. The experimental design comprehensively documents the changes in mineral size and composition, organic matrix quality and their combined effect on mechanical properties. The powder x-ray diffraction (XRD) method is applied to measure the crystal size and strain, and lattice parameters. Further, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is used to investigate the changes in carbonate substitution and crystallinity. This examination allows a dependable evaluation of the increase in mineral to matrix ratio and therefore, the increase in collagen. Subsequent analysis of combined mineral and organic changes with age was done through thermal analysis. The physicochemical characterisation was compared to functional mechanical properties. The study showed that, in contrast to other bones, skeletal maturity for the rib cortical bone is reached between 40 and 50 years of age. The study revealed that with age, there is an increase in crystal size and mineral content that is combined with the decrease in organic matrix amount and quality. It was also possible to confirm the importance of standardisation of the procedures. It was found out that a simple defatting procedure based on consecutive baths of chloroform, methanol and ethanol affects the evaluation of crystal size, which in turn affects the age estimation when using the powder XRD method. The 28 parameters measured using standard biomechanical (nanoindentation and microindentation), physical (DSC/TGA, FTIR and XRD) and histomorphometry (porosity-ImageJ) procedures were used to obtain an age-at-death estimation for unknown skeletal remains. Stepwise regression was employed to develop relations that would produce the best 'estimates of age-at-death' vs real age of the cadavers. Seven relationships were proposed: the relationship of primary importance containing 13 parameters and resulting in an R2 = 0.873 with a mean absolute error of ± 4.47. The relationship that performs poorly utilised only five parameters and resulted in an R2 = 0.840, with an average error estimate of ± 4.96 years. To conclude, physicochemical and mechanical characterisation of bone cortical bone shows good potential in accurate age-at-death estimation. Furthermore, the multi-factorial approach allows the combination of different methods to reach the best performance. A further employment of this method may involve histomorphometry and macroscopic examination of the age related degeneration if the sternal rib end, still largely used in forensic anthropology.

Forensic anthropology traditionally aims to assist law enforcement with human identification by physically examining skeletal remains and assigning a biological profile using various metric and visual methods. These methods are crucial when a body undergoes extreme damage and standard approaches for positive identification are not possible. However, the traditional methods employed by forensic anthropologists were primarily developed from North American reference populations and have demonstrated varying accuracy rates when assigning age, sex, and ancestry to individuals outside of the reference collection. Medical imaging is a valuable source for facilitating empirical research and an accessible gateway for developing novel forensic anthropological methods for analysis including 3D modelling. This is especially critical for the United Kingdom (UK) where biological profiling methods developed from modern UK populations do not currently exist. Researchers have quantified the variability of the paranasal sinuses between individuals and have begun to explore their ability to provide biological information. However, the published literature that addresses these structures in a forensic context presents extremely varied insights and to date there has been no standardisation. This thesis presents research that addresses this gap and introduces a new approach for human identification using 3D models of the paranasal sinuses. The models were produced from a database of modern CT scans provided by University College London Hospital (UCLH), London, UK. Linear measurements and elliptic Fourier coefficients taken from 1,500 three-dimensional models across six ethnic groups assessed by one-way ANOVA and discriminant function analysis showed a range of classification rates with certain rates reaching 75-85.7% (p<0.05) in correctly classifying age and sex according to size and shape. The findings offer insights into the potential for employing CT scans to develop identification methods within the UK and establishes a foundation for using the paranasal sinuses as an attribute for establishing identification of unknown human remains in future crime reconstructions.

This thesis investigates the psychological underpinnings of the Militant Extremist Mindset (MEM). The MEM includes three core components: Pro- violence, Vile World, and Divine Power. The thesis includes six chapters: a general introduction, a systematic review, two quantitative research studies, a psychometric critique, and a general discussion. The systematic review explored the relationship between violent extremism and the Dark Triad. Findings suggested that, currently, narcissism may be the most influential of the dark traits in the process of radicalisation and extremism. However, there were limited studies included in the systematic review, indicating a need for further research. The first quantitative research study investigated personality traits, and moral disengagement as predictors of the MEM and its three subscales. Hierarchical regression analyses found that Honesty- Humility, and moral disengagement predicted total MEM and the Pro-violence subscale. Openness and age predicted the Divine Power subscale. The second quantitative research study investigated linguistic categories as predictors of the MEM. The results found that the negative emotions, and anger categories correlated with both total MEM and the Divine Power subscale; third person plural pronouns correlated with the Pro-violence subscale, and first-person plural pronouns correlated with the Vile World subscale. Linear regressions found that third person plural pronouns predicted the Pro-violence subscale. Limitations and implications are discussed in both research studies. The psychometric critique discusses and critiques The Violent Extremist Risk Assessment 2 Revised in terms of its psychometric properties and its applicability to forensic practice. Whilst studies relating to this demonstrate promising findings, limitations indicate a need for further independent studies on the tool to test its reliability and validity. The final chapter summarises the key findings across the thesis, the limitations of the methods used, and implications of the findings for the field of violent extremism.

Body fluid and sex determination at the crime scene are important forensic questions where information can be obtained using various approaches. The standard techniques involved are well established and often utilise cheap, rapid tests to presumptively detect the presence of characteristic proteins and chemicals. However, the relatively poor accuracies of these tests compared to laboratory-based techniques that analyse nucleic acids limits their effectiveness and can lead to inefficient sample triage. This presents a need for novel field-based biomarker detection techniques that are both sensitive and specific. Toehold switches are de novo designed RNA/DNA sequences that contain the genetic motifs necessary for coupled transcription-translation of a reporter gene. Gene expression is repressed in the absence of a specific complementary target "trigger" sequence due to switch hairpin formation. Hybridisation of the trigger to the switch initiates hairpin unwinding and enables downstream gene expression. This specific and sensitive approach has led to toehold switches becoming an emerging platform for bio-detection, primarily in the field of viral RNA detection. This thesis identifies a lack of such applications to forensic science alongside a need for novel field-based DNA detection tools amongst forensic end-users with a market research study. To address these issues, a set of toehold switches were designed in-house for the detection of mRNA sequences specific to blood, saliva, semen, and the sex marker amelogenin. A contemporary qPCR assay was internally validated to act as a performance benchmark. To facilitate in vitro expression of toehold switches without expensive commercial cell-free protein synthesis systems, an Escherichia coli cell lysate was developed and optimised in-house. Gene expression from control plasmids was comparable to a commercial equivalent at 37°C and exceeded it at 29°C, with a shelf-life of approximately 6 - 8 months at -80°C. Toehold switches circuit function was unsuccessful with either system, which suggested an issue with toehold switch design. A screening framework utilising a combined melting curve and in silico thermodynamic analysis approach was devised to highlight high-performance toehold switches. This framework was able to predict the performances of six novel toehold switch designs and recommended designs to be discarded or studied further, but further characterisation is required to assess prediction accuracy. Results throughout are discussed in relation to the needs of forensic scientists and the capabilities of toehold switches as bio-detection tools compared to existing techniques.

This thesis focuses on the psychological experiences of two forensic groups, namely young, male repeat offenders, and children experiencing maternal imprisonment. The first chapter presents a systematic review of mixed methods research conducted to investigate the psychological impact of maternal imprisonment on children. 21 studies were included in this review and their results were synthesised using a narrative thematic approach. Two main themes were identified in the studies, Chaotic Families and Relational Dynamics. These themes explore the contextual and relational environments in which this group of children are raised. This review raises questions about the role of maternal imprisonment in the lives of children already situated within fragile families. Chapter two presents an Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis study exploring the interpersonal psychological experiences of young, male, repeat offenders. By focussing on 'petty' offences, this presents a unique study of an often-underrepresented group of men. It departs from criminogenic approaches that seek to investigate the causal nature of offending behaviour, by instead exploring a psychological perspective. Three superordinate themes were identified within participant narratives, Being Lost, Being Dis(connected), and Being Hopeful. These themes highlight the challenges that this group of young men face, managing their emotions and navigating complex relationships, whilst also holding on to a sense of hopefulness for their futures. The final chapter presents a reflective account of conducting this empirical research, situated within the context of being a trainee clinical psychologist. Issues raised within this account explore points of learning and personal development prompted through the research process.

Investigators will inevitably interview eyewitnesses from different cultures. Because eyewitnesses are not immune to the influences of their respective cultures, they may bring culturally determined reporting norms into the forensic setting. This thesis set out to determine whether there are cultural differences in eyewitness memory reports. Four experiments were conducted to examine this overarching aim. Based on the individualistic-collectivistic cultural framework, mock witnesses were sampled from cultures representing the individualistic-collectivistic cultural orientations. In Experiment 1, cultural differences in the content and nature of eyewitness memory reports was examined. Mock witnesses (N = 200) were sampled from Ghana and The Netherlands, representing collectivist and individualist cultures respectively, and provided memory reports about a stimuli event. Experiment 1 provided initial evidence of cultural differences in eyewitness memory reports such that individualistic mock witnesses reported more details about the event than did collectivistic culture mock witnesses. Experiment 2 examined whether migrating and adapting in a new cultural environment shapes the content and nature of eyewitness memory reports. Again, using a mock witness paradigm, participants (N = 107) were sub-Saharan African migrants in Western Europe and sub-Saharan Africans living in Africa. The results of Experiment 2 provided further evidence in support of the role of culture in shaping eyewitness memory reports, with sub-Saharan African migrants in Western Europe providing more elaborate details than did sub-Saharan Africans living in Africa. In Experiment 3, the role of culture in the susceptibility to misinformation effect was examined. Using a misinformation paradigm, participants (N = 127) from Ghana and the United Kingdom provided memory reports about a witnessed event. The results suggest that culture plays a role in the extent of the misinformation effect such that mock-witnesses with collectivistic cultural background endorsed misleading details more than mock witnesses with an individualistic cultural background. The final experiment conducted for this programme of research, Experiment 4, examined whether cultural differences in relating with authority figures play any role in the reports provided by eyewitnesses. Participants (N = 115) sampled from Ghana and the Netherlands provided memory reports either in an authority or a non-authority witness reporting context. The results of Experiment 4 suggest that interviewer authority impacts eyewitness memory reports differently across different cultures, such that eyewitness memory reports of mock witnesses with individualistic cultural background was enhanced when reporting in an authority context, whereas eyewitness memory reports of mock witnesses with collectivistic cultural background was impeded when reporting in an authority context. In consolidating the findings across experiments, the methodological challenges in conducting cross-cultural applied research are examined along with the implications of the findings for the conduct of investigative interviews in cross-cultural settings.

Humans are highly adapted to living in groups and are inherently social beings, navigating their world through social interaction with others (Stevens & Fiske, 1995). One's social identity (perception of how they are perceived by others) and sense of self (one's own sense of who they are) evolve out of interactions with others (Brewer, 1991; Fiske, 2018). We engage with others as social agents who one can make sense with, instead of just of (Needs & Adair-Stantiall, 2018), facilitating our understanding of our social world both as a distinct individual and as a participant within a group connecting with others (Kyselo, 2014). Being part of a group provides great benefits (e.g. self-esteem), and the mutual and reciprocal sense of belonging and connectedness is fundamental to our existence and survival (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Gruenewald, Kemeny, Aziz and Fahey, 2004). We are therefore acutely responsive to how others evaluate and feel about us, to ensure we are approved of and accepted (Richman & Leary, 2009). Effort and sacrifices are made to self-regulate, with the aim of maintaining our belongingness and, in turn, our positive social identity (Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco & Twenge, 2005; Baumeister, Brewer, Tice & Twenge, 2007). Situations that threaten one's status or value can result in psychological and physiological alerts (Kemeny, Gruenewald, & Dickerson, 2004). Shame, for example, is a key emotional response to devaluation of the social self, acting as a warning signal that one may be rejected from a group. The thought of being viewed by another as defective and unacceptable, even if the 'other' is not physically present, is enough to elicit shame. This can motivate defensive strategies in an attempt to create a positive self-image and reduce the threat of rejection. These strategies can, however, become maladaptive (Tangney & Dearing, 2002), contributing to associations between shame and violence, and recidivism (e.g. see Shanahan, Jones & Thomas-Peter, 2011; Tangney, Stuewig & Martinez, 2014). Shame is a social phenomenon, closely interlinked to one's sense of identity, but evidently there is scope for things to go very wrong. Threats to the social self and fragile selfworth, coupled with reliance on maladaptive coping strategies, appear to be strongly associated with offending behaviour. Accordingly, the experience of shame is of particular interest to forensic psychology (Walker & Knauer, 2011). This introductory literature review explores the above shame-related processes in greater detail. Focus is given to the crucial role of shame in the social self, adaptive and maladaptive functions of shame; and how these processes apply to offending populations. A relationship between shame and resilience is proposed, following on to why this would be problematic in forensic populations. This positions the premise of the overall thesis, which looks at the predictive role of shame in offending by those in the criminal justice system. This is followed by empirical research investigating how shame impacts forensic psychiatric patients' resilience. The implications this could have for engagement in psychological therapy to address offending behaviour is discussed. Finally, recommendations are made on how to address shame in forensic settings.

Insects and their fragments are often recovered from crime scenes and archaeological deposits as essential evidence in support of forensic and environmental archaeological investigations. Insects colonise the most diverse natural and anthropic environments, however different taxa show different ecological preferences and their development and phenology are species-specific and temperature dependent. Therefore, species identification is of primary importance to make any interpretation of the case. Today, insects identification can be achieved using two different approaches: 1) the morphological analysis of diagnostic features is currently well-established, irreplaceable and traditionally widely used method; 2) on the other hand, the DNA-based identification method has been integrated more recently (second half of 1980s) as a consequence of the rapid advance of molecular biology techniques. The main objective of this thesis is to provide an accurate framework of how to proceed to analyse entomological remains collected from contexts where conservation status is not optimal. A strong focus is directed on Diptera, using both approaches and providing a pragmatic and critic workflow of analysis for reliable interpretative purposes. In particular, the lack of descriptions of immature stages of poorly studied species is considered and investigated. To achieve this, three macro-projects concerning either archaeoentomological or forensic entomological investigations are presented through the analysis of two case-studies, respectively. The outcomes of the whole research include: i) an original contribution to molecular archaeology research, through the ex novo design of a DNA-based workflow applied to Diptera puparia; ii) an innovative contribution to the environmental archaeology research belonging to the Italian heritage, through the analysis of mineralised findings recovered from a Sardinian medieval urban well, and found in association to human remains within a Roman grave; iii) an essential contribution to forensic entomology, through the generation of new morphological data of immature stages of Physiphora alceae (Diptera: Ulidiidae) and through the comparative descriptions of puparia of ten species of Piophilidae, along with the design of a dichotomy key. Although the results are overall promising, further research is needed within molecular archaeology field applied on Diptera puparia. An improved workflow which meets all the essential authenticity criteria will be a great achievement and will provide an extra tool of analysis for archaeological records. The great potential of the archaeoentomological investigations in deriving interpretations of the human past and practices has been demonstrated not only through the identification of taxa but also through the analysis of taphonomic processes involved in their preservation. Finally, an integrated taxonomy-DNA based approach is beneficial, whether applicable, to strengthen the accuracy of the identifications; however, a continuous research is necessary to generate new data especially of unexplored and poorly studied taxa of forensic interest.

Compulsory treatment presents an ethical quandary and thus far research provides little promise regarding reduced readmission or length of inpatient stays, though some value has been shown in administering outpatient treatment. Those in forensic services and particularly those under restriction orders face the greatest constraints on their liberty with detention imposed "without limit of time", unlike time-limited sentences in the prison system. There is a dearth of research exploring patients perspectives of compulsory treatment and particularly the most restrictive forms of this. The current study used interpretative phenomenological analysis to analyse interviews with participants about their experiences of living under restriction. Results derived four superordinate themes; (1) How did I end up here? (2) Impact: Power, Punishment and Protection (3) Surviving and Adapting (4) Healing. The results are reviewed in the context of extant findings; clinical implications and areas of future research are discussed. Conditional release (CR) is the primary mechanism for managing individuals under forensic care in the community. Services must identify those at higher risk for revocation/ readmission (RR) and promote protective factors for increased quality of life and to minimize recidivism. A systematic search was conducted to identify, summarise and critically assess studies that have evaluated factors associated with RR in forensic patients. The review found that higher substance use, personality disorder/ traits, severity and chronicity in psychiatric illness, criminality and minority ethnicity are risk factors for RR. Protective factors identified were: white ethnicity, being married, social security, not having personality disorder, longer tenure in outpatient programme, clozapine treatment, fewer incidents while on CR, labour skills and higher functioning at CR. Future research should include prospective study designs, standardised measures, and variables independent from RR. Clinical implications include identification of individuals with risk factors for RR and promotion of protective factors.

Laws of the Face is a multi-modal, participant-observer study of forensic cultures of human identification which pursues practical and theoretical objectives as complementary, focusing on methods of post-mortem facial depiction as forensic objects whose socio-cultural affordances have been overlooked. Recognising Forensic Art’s epistemological precarity within forensic science and ontological ambiguity as art, the cultural in/visibilities of the dead are considered through theories of faciality, photography and necropolitics, and the operational work of post-mortem forensic depictions is resituated with reference to the counter-forensic (Keenan, 2014a; Sekula, 2014), forensis (Weizman, 2014) and Humanitarian Forensic Action (Cordner and Tidball-Binz, 2017), with the work of citizen/netizen allies suggesting new ways to extend the forum of relational citizenship and forensic care (M’Charek and Casartelli, 2019). An operational study undertaken in a medico-legal facility in Cape Town (South Africa) results in an evidence-based framework which supports the routine uptake of standardised post-mortem facial imaging/depiction in complex operational contexts, informed by ways in which the so-called ‘migrant body’ is forcing change and innovation in forensic methods internationally. Fieldwork and semi-structured interviews (n=70) with forensic deathwork practitioners internationally provide a grounded analysis of the state of the field, culminating in a new critical framework for post-mortem Forensic Art as a form of ‘extra-ordinary deathwork’ (Moon, 2020), characterised by its re-mediating actions located both in the process of the work itself, and in the work these images are expected to perform, forensically and well as socially. Conventional frameworks of expert/amateur knowledge are challenged, and pracademic exchange promoted. The main tenets of the thesis are performed by an online artwork called Speaking Likeness, comprising eighteen audio-visual portraits of forensic artists in which aspects of the hidden curriculum of this work is revealed through embodied knowledge and arts-based research.

The focus of this thesis was to examine ways of better understanding the experiences and needs of gang members. Psychological theories of gang membership highlight the interaction between individual, peer, and sociocultural processes which occur in the context of the gang. As such, broadly speaking, each chapter considers one of these factors in turn. Chapter 2 focuses on the individual-level factor of mental health problems. It is the first systematic literature review undertaken to date, which explores the association between mental health problems and youth gang members. A positive association was found between young male gang members and a range of mental health problems. Limitations are noted including the type of comparison samples used, variations in sample sizes and measurement instruments. Chapter 3 relates to the impact of peer-related factors and presents an empirical study with gang-involved youth, based in London, United Kingdom (UK). Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), the study gained an in-depth understanding of the experiences of social support as perceived by five male gang-involved youth. Three superordinate themes were identified: “For me, it’s just how life was”; “The gang and I: A sense of belonging” and “Finding a new path”. The findings are discussed with respect to clinical implications, whilst outlining suggestions for further research. Chapter 4 has a socio-cultural focus in that it provides a critique of Children’s Report of Exposure to Community Violence (CREV, Cooley, Beidel, & Turner, 1995) and the Children’s Report of Exposure to Community Violence-Revised (CREV-R, Cooley-Strickland et al., 2009); these are self-report screening tools which measure exposure to community violence in children. The critique concluded that the measures would benefit from wider sampling with different populations, including youth who are gang-involved, in addition to revising some of its items that affect the way it currently measures exposure to community violence.

Numerous studies demonstrate that memory recall is improved by reflecting upon, or revisiting, the environment in which information to-be-recalled was encoded. The current thesis sought to apply these ‘context reinstatement’ (CR) techniques in an attempt to improve the effectiveness of facial composites—likenesses of perpetrators constructed by witnesses and victims of crime. Participant-constructors were shown an unfamiliar target face in an unfamiliar environment (e.g., an unknown café). The following day, participants either revisited the environment (physical context reinstatement) or recalled the environmental context in detail along with their psychological state at the time (mental context reinstatement, Detailed CR); they then freely recalled the face and constructed a facial composite using a holistic (EvoFIT) or a feature system (PRO-fit). Over the course of five experiments and meta-analyses, Detailed CR of the environmental context was effective at increasing correct naming and likeness ratings of ensuing composites. The size of the advantage for Detailed CR was dependent on the extent to which the environment had been encoded: the advantage was (i) variable for incidental encoding (Experiments 1-3) with an overall small effect size (ES) (assessed by meta-analysis), (ii) best (very large ES) under intentional encoding (Experiment 3) and (iii) intermediate (large ES) for incidental encoding when participants were encouraged to engage naturally with the environment (Experiment 4). Detailed CR was also found to be effective when combined with a specific interviewing technique (Holistic-Cognitive Interview) where constructors focused on the target’s character; it was no more effective when constructors were prompted to recall the environment in greater detail. Further analyses (Meta-analyses) and additional data (Experiment 5) indicate that the advantage of Detailed CR was mediated by an increase in constructor’s total face recall. Results are interpreted in terms of the encoding specificity principle and can be applied by forensic practitioners who use feature and recognition systems. This thesis is the first to reveal that context cues can be implemented effectively during forensic face construction using modern composite systems.

Section 1: Literature Review: Literature on antisocial attitudes and violence in young people in a forensic setting was reviewed. Seven studies were reviewed, five of which supported the view that violent young people are more likely to hold antisocial attitudes compared to their non-violent peers. Homogeneous and heterogeneous attitudes are explored. A critique of the review is provided including limitations, implications and suggestions for future research. Section 2: Research Report: Comparisons of the experience of emotions using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and antisocial cognitions using the How I Think Questionnaire (HIT) between violent (n = 74) and non-violent (n = 22) young people within a secure training centre were explored. Quantitative analyses indicated that the violent group did not experience significantly more emotions or cognitive distortions than the non-violent group. Results are discussed in relation to previous research. Clinical implications are considered, as well as possibilities for future research in light of the research limitations. Section 3: Service Evaluation: An evaluation of the effectiveness of the Forward Thinking® ‘What Got Me Here?' group intervention at a secure training centre for young people with a sample of N = 18. Non-parametric analysis of pre and post intervention outcome changes on the University Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URICA), and the What Got Me Here Facilitator Assessment of Participant indicated significant improvements on overall readiness to change, contemplation and action indices on the URICA, and on all indices in the facilitator assessment. Recommendations, future opportunities as well as a critique of the study is provided. Section 4: Critical Appraisal: A critique of the research methodology and limitations, and setting and role challenges, is discussed. A reflection of personal and professional learning is explored.

Human rights apply universally to all human beings, however human rights violations have been well-documented in forensic services. Forensic inpatient psychiatric services (FIPS) in the UK occupy a unique position as a healthcare service with obligations to the criminal justice system. This presents challenges in providing patient-centred and human rights-supportive care due to environmental, ethical and legal constraints. In order to understand these challenges and the position of human rights in FIPS, staff were interviewed to explore their understandings of human rights and human rights issues in FIPS. A critical realist epistemological stance was taken and a qualitative research design employed. Eleven FIPS staff were individually interviewed and a thematic analysis was conducted, yielding four key themes: Theme 1: “I Don’t Know an Awful Lot About Them”: Broad Concepts of Human Rights Theme 2: “It Always, Always Comes Back to Risk”: Human Rights in FIPS Theme 3: “Do We Know We’re Violating? Maybe Not”: Human Rights Issues Theme 4: “I Think I-, I’m ... Confused”: Tools and Resources in FIPS In seeking to understand staff’s perspectives of human rights in FIPS, this study found that human rights were not widely considered in practice. Practice was predominantly focused around risk and the key legislation considered was the Mental Health Act 1983 (MHA). Both of these factors were seen to justify legally infringing upon human rights, although several practices, lawful under the MHA, were raised as human rights issues, such as restraint and forced medication. Several factors were identified as obstacles to human rights-supportive practice, such as risk management requirements, service culture, and individual practice. However, participants highlighted a need for human rights principles to be integrated into FIPS to improve practice and patient outcomes.

Background: Strength-based approaches to working with Mentally Disordered Offenders (MDOs) move from a focus on mental disorder and risk to a wider consideration of the individual that considers their strengths, personal priorities and competencies. There is an increasing emphasis on values and recovery in health and forensic mental health services. This represents a shift in perspective from a deficit focus to an abilities focus. There is however a paucity of research into values and strength-based approaches. This thesis portfolio aims to contribute to this area of research. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was conducted to review strengthbased approaches for mentally disordered offenders in forensic mental health settings. Four databases (MELINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE and SCOPUS) were searched and 10 studies were included in the review. The outcomes measures in the included studies were recovery, quality of life, violence/risk, recidivism, mental health symptoms, therapeutic milieu, and engagement. In the empirical study, a Grounded Theory Methods was used to build a theory of values of men in a medium secure unit who have offended. Interviews were conducted with nine inpatients in a Scottish medium secure unit. Results: The findings of the systematic review, although limited, suggest that a strength-based approach will facilitate outcomes in quality of life, recovery, mental health symptoms, violence, risk, recidivism, and engagement. Limited evidence was found and there was also a lack of consistent findings. Further consideration of the long-term impact of such an approach and further high-quality research is needed to establish the effectiveness of strength-based approaches. In the empirical paper, a model of values in mentally disordered offenders was produced. The expressed values of MDOs were made up four separate categories relating to: (1.) connecting with others; (2.) living a healthy life; (3.) being productive and contributing; and (4.) having agency and being in control. As part of the model, a consideration is given to the development of values throughout life and the barriers and opportunities that impact on an individual’s life and the impact that has on values. Conclusions: The findings of this thesis indicate that there is a benefit to using strength-based and values informed approaches to working with mentally disordered offenders. The findings of this research support the view that mentally disordered offenders share similar values to non-offenders. Further research is needed, to be able to clearly support the effectiveness of strength-based approaches and also to evaluate the use of values to guide clinical care and treatment.

The utilization of qualitative and quantitative analysis of long bone histology has demonstrated its usefulness in forensic human identification, including age-at-death estimation, human and non-human determination and sex determination. The establishment of an individual biological profile from the measurement of skeletal microstructure requires an understanding of the bone remodelling mechanism that results in the variation in the shape, size and organization of bone microstructural characteristics. The majority of current literature in this area have been conducted with little consideration given to the variability of sampling sites, different skeletal elements or population specificity. These issues have led to an unclear understanding of how sex differences, sampling region and different population groups may affect the change of bone histomorphology throughout a skeletal element. This research examined the degree of inter- and intra-skeletal histomorphometric variation in both the humerus and femur at three different cross-sectional sampling sites as well as the circumferential variation within a sampling site across two human populations (Scottish and Thai) and two animal species (Porcine and Bovine). At each sampling site traditional histomorphometric parameters such as osteon and Haversian canal areas, perimeter, and also diameters were measured. Comparisons of skeletal histomorphometric were established with the purpose of examining effects of histologic variation on an estimation of population origin, sex and species. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first application of traditional histomorphometric methods and statistical analysis to the field of skeletal histomorphometry for the purpose of distinguishing two geographically different populations. Haversian system related parameters were also assessed in terms of their benefit for potential future application in a forensic context. This research showed a number of novel findings. First, variation of skeletal histomorphometric parameters are not only found within weight bearing bones, but are also demonstrated in non-weight bearing skeletal elements. Second, the existence of this variation is considerable and should be taken into account when utilising histological methods in a forensic context, especially when establishing biological identifications. Finally, this research showed variability of skeletal microstructure between sexes and between population groups, and thus may form the basis of methods for sex determination and population differentiation.

The present thesis recognises that capturing service users’ experiences can add insightful information to research and clinical practice. This thesis acknowledges that this collaborative approach can be often underrepresented and particularly in forensic psychiatric settings, where care and treatment are often determined by legal requirements, received on an involuntary basis and where coercive measures may be used. This thesis offers two papers which explored forensic service users’ perspectives. The first paper considered how forensic service users may be expected to engage in psychological treatments as part of their care and treatment plans, and consequently, individuals may comply without feeling personally motivated or invested. Most of the evidence for psychological interventions in forensic psychiatric care is based on quantitative data, which provides tentative and limited evidence to support its effectiveness. The first paper reviewed forensic service users’ perspectives on such interventions, and aimed to inform clinicians and services providing such treatments. Paper one followed a meta-ethnography approach to synthesise the findings from 11 qualitative papers. This synthesis described six super-ordinate themes that reflect which aspects of psychological interventions service users found both valuable and not so valuable. The synthesis demonstrated that many individuals comply with these treatments as they believe this is expected of them, perhaps because it is the only way to move towards discharge, or because they have no other choice. Whilst a collaborative approach was recognised as valuable, this can be a challenge to establish in forensic practice and a good therapeutic relationship is pivotal. The results indicated that interventions should be tailored to each individuals’ abilities and that many prefer a gradual approach to ease them into the therapeutic process. Service users reported positive changes from engaging in psychological interventions, including increased emotional regulatory skills, 6 interpersonal skills and personal growth, which enabled them to think more positively about the future. It is recommended that these findings should be used in conjunction with the quantitative evidence available and further research is still needed in this area. The second paper also considered service users’ perspectives, but from a trauma-informed approach. It recognised that forensic service users have often had experiences of adversity and trauma throughout their lives, and research increasingly shows a strong relationship between these experiences, mental health difficulties and offending behaviours. Services are encouraged to adopt a collaborative stance, however, the literature in this area lacks forensic service users’ perspectives. Paper two aimed to address this through interviewing forensic service users about their past adverse experiences and how they make sense of these, particularly in relation to their detention in secure care. This paper captured the voices of eight service users, six of whom are male, detained in medium and low secure wards. Four super-ordinate themes are discussed from an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) and relate to: service users’ experiences of living amongst adversity; managing these adversities throughout their lives; relating their pasts to their detention in secure care; and how the past still impacts them in the present. Individuals described previously feeling isolated and let down by others, and therefore, they used destructive ways to internalise and externalise their distress. There were differences between how individuals related these past experiences to their detention, with some individuals being more aware of this relationship than others. It seemed that individuals’ insight to this relationship was part of a process, which was facilitated by staff input. Service users also tended to use avoidant strategies to cope with their pasts and this was evident in some of the interviews. This paper related these findings to attachment theory from a developmental trauma perspective and proposed the adoption of trauma-informed care in forensic services. 7 Some aspects of paper one and paper two can be related. For instance, they both acknowledged that service users have interpersonal difficulties and that services can adapt their approaches to minimise the impact of these and to enhance trusting and collaborative relationships. Although limitations of each paper are acknowledged, they both provided clinical implications for forensic psychiatric services. Paper one provided implications for clinicians offering psychological interventions and also for the wider systems, as the importance of collaboration, positive relationships and transparent communication can be considered necessary throughout the services. Paper two also provided implications for service delivery and supports the notion of trauma informed care. It highlighted that staff should be aware of the impact and consequences of adverse experiences, for both the service users and for themselves when supporting service users. It also referred to the psychological interventions discussed in paper one, which acknowledge the impact of past adverse experiences. Future research is recommended for both papers. Both papers have been written in line with the standards of the Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology but as per doctorate guidelines, a word limit of 8000 is used for each (Appendix A).

This PhD program of work focused on the role of cognition in the sleep-aggression relationship relating to both aggression towards others and towards the self (i.e. self-injury). The research aimed to develop a preliminary model to explain the potential contribution of cognition in this complex relationship. Research methodology included a systematic literature review, qualitative interviews, a cross-sectional study and an intervention study comparing Mindfulness, Sleep Hygiene Education, and Treatment as Usual (control). The empirical studies were conducted with high secure psychiatric patients. Findings indicate that cognition is multifaceted in the relationship between sleep and aggression. Interventions to improve sleep should be tailored to individual needs and consider the cognitive factors contributing to both sleep and aggression. The preliminary model outlined acknowledges the contribution of a range of cognitions.

Environmental forms of trace evidence (such as mineral grains, pollen grains, algae, and sediment) can offer valuable insights within forensic casework. An issue facing forensic science as a whole, and these environmental indicators specifically, is a relative dearth of empirical research which would underpin the interpretation of such indicators when attempting forensic reconstruction. This thesis aims to address this lacuna, undertaking experiments to: (1) Explore variables which affect the rates of transfer and persistence, with specific focus upon quartz grains (a terrestrial indicator) and diatom valves (an aquatic indicator) upon footwear materials (a substrate that has been under-represented in past studies); (2) Conduct research into the effects of particle size and morphology upon transfer and persistence; (3) Develop and adapt methodologies to undertake this research. Accordingly, the outputs of this thesis are: (1) The creation of new datasets which could inform the interpretation of these trace indicators within forensic investigations and crime reconstruction scenarios and (2) The development of novel methodologies which could be employed in future research to attempt to accelerate data collection and analysis, without compromising on accuracy. This research is interdisciplinary, combining theory from forensic science, analytical techniques from the environmental sciences, and some elements of image processing and analysis.

Background - Boundary maintenance within any healthcare context is important, due to the potential adverse impact on patients. The criminogenic nature of forensic patients means that boundary maintenance is pertinent for the safety of patients, staff and members of the public alike. Individual precursors of boundary crossings are relatively well studied. However, interpersonal risk factors which may affect employee perceptions about the seriousness and acceptability of boundary crossing behaviour within forensic settings has received less research attention. Aims and Objectives - The main aim of this thesis was to explore perceptions of boundary crossings and violations within forensic hospitals and the role which attachment tendencies may play in this relationship. 1. What does the literature suggest about the role of attachment tendencies on an individual’s workplace behaviour? (Chapter 2). 2. Is the Revised Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR: Fraley et al., 2000) a suitable measure for assessing attachment tendencies within the workplace? (Chapter 3). 3. What are the individual employee factors which may be associated with the perceptions of the acceptableness and seriousness of boundary crossings and violations within forensic mental health settings? (Chapter 4). 4. What is the impact of adult attachment tendencies upon the perceptions of the acceptableness and seriousness of boundary crossings and violations within forensic mental health settings? (Chapter 5). Method – To answer the first question, a systematic review was completed to explore the current literature regarding the role of attachment tendencies upon employees work performance (Chapter 2). A psychometric review was conducted to assess the reliability and validity of the ECR-R and its suitability for measuring attachment in the workplace (Chapter 3). Two pieces of empirical research using qualitative methods aimed to explore the relationship between perceptions of boundaries on organisational and interpersonal employee characteristics (Chapters 4 & 5). Overall Findings – The systematic review (Chapter 2) demonstrated that secure attachment tendencies were associated with professional and “help giving” behaviours at work; whilst anxious tendencies were associated with unprofessional and unethical behaviours which may have a negative impact on both the organisation involved, as well as individuals associated with that work place. The psychometric review of the ECR-R (Chapter 3) confirmed the validity and reliability of the tool for measuring adult attachment tendencies, both within romantic and occupational contexts. Empirical research demonstrated significant relationships between individual employee factors (Chapter 4), attachment tendencies (Chapter 5) and the perceived acceptability of boundary crossings, using vignettes, within a forensic setting. Employees who were either working within a therapy role or had more experience were more likely to view boundary crossings and violations as unacceptable compared to their colleagues. Additionally, the perceived acceptableness of boundary crossings and violations was higher in anxiously attached rather than avoidant attached employees. Conclusions – Healthcare professionals perceptions towards boundary crossings and violations is mediated by individual and organisational factors. Employees who have anxious attachment tendencies are more likely to perceive boundary crossings as acceptable. Additional research is needed to identify if this relationship applies to the actual engagement of boundary crossings or violations. Findings may help to support individuals through additional training in boundary maintenance and highlight the importance of regular supervision.

The prevalence of revenge in serious crime means that forensic practitioners need to assess the potential for future acts and deliver tailored interventions to reduce risk. In applied forensic settings, research considering the motive of revenge and the first-person experiences of clients who commit such offences, is limited. This thesis investigated the roots and routes of revenge, trajectories of harm and the opportunities for early intervention and public protection. This primarily investigated the first-person perspectives and experiences of male mentally disordered offenders who had committed offences in response to real or perceived transgressions. The outcome of this study illustrated the influence of prior exposure to traumatic events on future trajectories of revenge. An applied model of revenge was developed to inform work with clinical and forensic clients, whether convicted of or identified as ‘at risk’ of revenge. Early trauma and adversity were considered in a client case study of a revenge-oriented female arsonist with a complex mental health presentation. The influence of early maladaptive schemas and relational dynamics were especially relevant to the interpretation of responses to perceived or real slights and acts of revenge. The influence of human-induced trauma (experienced, witnessed or perpetrated) on the development of subsequent psychopathology (post-traumatic stress and embitterment) and corresponding thoughts, fantasies and acts of harm formed the focus of the scoping review. This considered the role of revenge and associated acts of harm in displaced (refugees and asylum seekers) populations, civilians in post-war communities, veterans and combatants (including former child soldiers), genocide perpetrators and survivors, victims of crime and offenders. The assessment of ‘Propensity for Revenge’ (PfR) was considered in a psychometric critique which emphasised the challenges for practitioners working with offending and ‘at risk’ populations. The implications of these distinct but iterative research studies on revenge are discussed along with research and practice recommendations.

Why are certain individuals more likely to endorse stalking attitudes than others? Is there a relationship between stalking attitudes and an individual’s online behaviour? What characterises the psychological profile of a cyberstalker? This thesis explores individual differences in stalking attitudes and associated online behaviour. Beginning by systematically reviewing the literature on perpetrator characteristics of cyberstalkers, it then examines a number of identified variables (with a particular interest in dark personality traits), to discern whether these could predict stalking attitudes. It also investigates individuals reasons for engaging in behaviours online which could amount to stalking to discern possible motivation. Finally, the thesis critiques the stalking related attitudes questionnaire, which is used throughout. The discoveries made in the thesis form practice and research recommendations, developing our understanding of stalking and cyberstalking, creating greater awareness to inform legislation, prevention and intervention efforts. By developing this understanding, it is hoped there will be significant implications for clinicians, informing prevention, assessment and treatment approaches while also advancing legislation and security initiatives for policy makers.

Overall, this thesis explored the impact of viewing pornography on adult males, particularly on attitudes towards sexual aggression including rape myth acceptance. The systematic review served to provide a starting point and reviewed the impact of exposure to pornography on attitudes towards sexual aggression; typically, acceptance of rape myths and attitudes towards sexual coercion. A narrative synthesis generally suggested that exposure to pornography, particularly pornography inclusive of violent themes, has detrimental effects on males attitudes towards sexual aggression. The systematic review demonstrated that rape myth acceptance is a common outcome measure focused upon in the literature examining pornography consumption and thus the psychometric measures used to investigate rape myth acceptance were evaluated. A critique of the psychometric properties of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale is presented, referring to the development of the Acceptance of Modern Myths about Sexual Aggression Scale throughout. In addition, the development of rape myth acceptance as a construct is discussed. The third chapter of the thesis reports a research project that focused on the impact of adult males’ exposure to ‘soft-core’ pornography, which is commonly found in mainstream media via sexualised media content. This area is of interest given the comparable lack of research exploring exposure to pornographic content via engagement with mainstream media. Generally, the impact of an ever-increasingly sexualised media environment is considered. Finally, a case study is presented which evaluated the effectiveness of a compassion focused therapy informed intervention that was completed with a 33-year-old male (patient A) in a medium secure therapeutic community. Patient A had a well-established history of sexually inappropriate behaviour towards females. Formulation suggested that his excessive pornography use appeared to play an important role in his behaviour and thus an aim of the intervention was to qualitatively explore the role of pornography use in his sexually aggressive behaviour. In summary, the thesis explored the seemingly detrimental impact of pornography consumption on individuals. Recommendations are made for further exploration of our sexualised media environment and the thesis considered the role of pornography in the commission of sexual aggression.

Background: Following interpersonal transgressions, some individuals have difficulty letting go of hostile feelings towards their transgressor, foregoing forgiveness and enacting revenge. Romantic revenge research has received less attention than other interpersonal relationship contexts (e.g. the workplace). Aims and objective: This thesis explores romantic revenge, seeking to highlight current knowledge of this topic and determine areas requiring further exploration. It comprises a systematic review (consolidating our current understanding of romantic revenge), a psychometric critique (examining a measure – the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations inventory - used to explore unforgiving motivations, including revenge) and two empirical research studies (examining extra-legal factors that could influence public perceptions of a vengeful behaviour committed within romantic relationships - Revenge Pornography). Overall findings: The systematic review identified variables (e.g. personality) that appear to influence perceptions of, motivations for, or likelihood of engaging in romantic revenge; a preliminary framework was developed to highlight the complex processes involved. The critique highlighted a need for the measure to be validated with offender samples (specifically, those who commit vengeful offences against romantic partners). The empirical research revealed there are extra-legal factors (e.g. victim-perpetrator gender) that appear to influence perceptions of revenge pornography in relation to victim blame and perceptions of harm; these were subsequently included in the preliminary framework developed within the systematic review. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Background: Aggression can often occur in people who have an Acquired Brain Injury (ABI), and the prevalence of ABI in forensic settings is high. This thesis aimed to explore aggression following ABI, how aggression is measured in various clinical settings, and then how aggression is defined, triggered and managed in a forensic hospital setting. Method: A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted, identifying and evaluating measures used to assess aggression in adults with ABI. One of these measures, the OAS-MNR was critically evaluated. A questionnaire was then developed based on the OAS-MNR to quantitatively assess triggers to aggression in patients with ABI in a forensic hospital from the staff’s perspective. Qualitative data was then collected through interviews with staff to provide deeper exploration of these triggers. Results: The OAS-MNR was the only identified measure which assesses antecedents to aggression in people with ABI. Using a questionnaire based on this measure, staff frequently reported internal and external triggers that can lead to aggressive incidents, including restrictions in the secure environment. Frustration was identified as the main trigger, which they explained could lead to aggression if the patient is unable to control or effectively communicate their frustration. Impairment as a result of the brain injury can make this more difficult. Discussion: Incidents of aggression in a forensic ABI setting are frequent, complex and include multiple triggers to aggression. Incidents can be better managed by awareness of individual patients’ triggers, and distraction techniques. This can be helpful when training new staff or managing incidents.

In forensic DNA profiling, the occurrence of complex mixed profiles is currently a common issue. Cases involving intimate swabs or skin flake tape liftings are prone to mixed profiles, because of more than one donor contributing to a DNA sample. By DNA profiling of single spermatozoa and skin flakes, problems associated with mixed profile could ideally be overcome. However, PCR is not a sensitive enough method to generate DNA profiles by STRs on single cells. Moreover, high quality intact DNA is required, but is not always available in skin flakes due to degradation. Additionally, single skin flakes are difficult to discriminate from other similar looking particles on tape liftings used to secure DNA samples from evidence. The main purpose of this study was to develop a method that enables DNA profiling of single sperm cells and skin flakes. After studying multiple whole genome amplification (WGA) protocols, REPLI-g Single Cell WGA was selected due to its suitability in the pre-amplification step of template DNA. Micromanipulation was used to isolate single spermatozoa. Furthermore, micromanipulation in combination with REPLI-g Single Cell WGA resulted in successful DNA profiling of single spermatozoa by using autosomal STRs as well as X- and Y-chromosomal STRs. The single spermatozoa DNA profiling method described in this thesis was successfully used to identify male contributors from mock intimate swabs with a mixture of semen from multiple male contributors. Different dyes were analysed to develop a staining method to discriminate skin flakes from other particles including particles such as those from hair cosmetic products. From all dyes tested, Orange G was the only dye which successfully discriminated skin flakes from hair product particles. Also, an alkaline based lysis protocol was developed that allowed PCR to be carried out directly on the lysates of single skin flakes. Furthermore, REPLI-g Single Cell WGA was tested on single skin flakes. In contrast to the single spermatozoa, REPLI-g Single Cell WGA was not successful in DNA profiling of single skin flakes. The single skin flake DNA profiling method described in this thesis was successfully used in correctly identifying contributors from mock mixed DNA evidence. Additionally, a small amplicon-based NGS method was tested on single skin flakes. Compared to the PCR and CE approach, the small amplicon-based NGS method improved DNA profiling of single skin flakes, giving a significant increase in allele recovery. In conclusion, this study shows circumventing mixtures is possible by DNA profiling of single spermatozoa, using micromanipulation and WGA. Furthermore, DNA profiling of single skin flakes has been improved by the staining of tape liftings methodology with Orange G, alkaline lysis, direct-PCR and a small amplicon-based NGS approach. Nonetheless, future work is required to assess the performance of the single spermatozoa method on mock swabs with more diluted semen. Also, commercially available NGS kits should be tested with single skin flakes and compared with the in-house NGS method.

The nineteenth century was a period of reform and transition for the office of coroner. Despite its antiquity and its place at the heart of the investigation into sudden and unexplained deaths, various social, political and intellectual changes resulted in a growing debate about the purpose, role and functions of the coronership. Many commentators, as well as coroners themselves, believed the office needed reform. This thesis considers debates about the office of the coroner from c. 1820 to c. 1888, a period that covers the wide-ranging attempts to reform the coronial office by the London coroner Thomas Wakley in the 1820s to the legislative initiatives of the 1880s that shaped the office for the next century. In particular it assesses the extent to which these debates relate to two broad concepts: medicalization and professionalization. For some, the future of the coronial office lay in the increasing application of medical expertise to the inquest, even to the extent of turning the coronership into an exclusively medical role. This study assesses how far such 'medicalizing' tendencies impacted on the office. Likewise, it considers whether the office underwent a process of professionalization during the nineteenth century. By considering guides to coronial practice, legislation and the formation and activities of the Coroners' Society of England and Wales, it explores whether the coronership became a profession over the course of the century. These debates are viewed through a focus on coroners from London and Middlesex, since as a group they were at the forefront of debates. Working in the challenging environment of the metropolis, and close to the centres of political, legal, scientific and medical authority, London and Middlesex coroners such as Wakley, William Baker, William Payne, Edwin Lankester and Samuel Langham were prominent advocates of coronial reform. The thesis assesses how far coronial change was being driven from London; it suggests that there were different phases in the reforming process, each of which was closely associated with London and Middlesex coroners, and which together brought about important reforms that professionalized the office and created a medico-legal (that is, informed and shaped by the disciplines of both medicine and law), if not medicalized, inquest.

This thesis explores the feasibility of testing for drugs from a fingerprint. Previous publications have reported drug detection in fingerprints from either drug users or after contact with a substance. There are possibilities to exploit these findings either for forensics (where a finger-mark is deposited at a crime scene to give intelligence about a donor) or for drug testing (where fingerprints are deposited under controlled conditions). In forensic science, it may be sufficient to know that a drug has been either handled or ingested within a specific time frame. In contrast, for drug testing, it may be necessary to exclude handling of drugs as a possible source. In either case, it is necessary to understand the significance of detecting a drug or its metabolite in a fingerprint. This thesis explored the significance of detecting a selection of illicit drugs in fingerprints. In Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, a rapid analysis method based on paper spray high resolution mass spectrometry is developed and validated for cocaine and its metabolite, benzoylecgonine (BZE), and the method is applied to the fingerprints of non-drug users and drug users respectively. As a result, cocaine and BZE were found in samples from both non-drug users (set as environmental cut-off) and drug users. The detection rate from drug users was above 90 % and there were no false positive using this method. Moreover, handwashing involvement became indicative of either ingestion of cocaine OR recent contact with cocaine. In Chapter 6 and 7, imaging mass spectrometry techniques were employed to determine whether contact and ingestion scenarios can be distinguished via spatial distribution of analytes. Those results supported the hypothesis that hot spots would be formed in fingerprints after contact whereas analytes would be evenly distributed in fingerprints after ingestion. The presence of BZE was also used to in distinguishing fingerprint samples from the two scenarios. In Chapter 8 and 9, the paper spray mass spectrometry methodology was expanded to a selection of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) relevant to a prison environment using fingerprints for the first time. The method was applied to the fingerprints of prisoners before and after participants washed their hands. As a result, NPS substances were not detected from any participants, in agreement with their urine testing. Finally, in Chapter 10, the data collected in Chapter 4 and 5 was analysed retrospectively for detection of heroin and 6-AM in fingerprints to explore the possibility of carrying out an untargeted analysis. The sensitivity of the method was not as good as for cocaine and benzoylecgonine (BZE), which led to the lower detection rate of heroin and 6-AM than that of cocaine and BZE. However, this study proved that the paper spray method could still provide qualitative and quantitative results of heroin detection in fingerprints. This study demonstrates that in the future with a suitable, deployable high resolution mass spectrometer, paper spray mass spectrometry could be used to detect cocaine, its metabolites and NPS for evidential purposes within the confines of a police station.

This project explores the effects of high temperatures and explosions on DNA samples of forensic value. It aims to determine the conditions under which biomaterials may degrade in accidental disasters, crime involving fire, and bombings, and how degradation affects interpretation. The experiments were designed to reflect situations requiring victim and suspect identification, and so involved testing various human samples including blood and saliva stains. Some samples were heated under laboratory conditions, while others were attached to pipe bombs and detonated outdoors with the assistance of US Police bomb enforcement officers. A sensitive mitochondrial DNA multiplex system was devised, and successfully used to detect DNA degradation prior to more costly analyses. Capillary electrophoresis-based STR typing and Massively Parallel Sequencing were compared in terms of their performance on degraded DNA. Treatment at 180 °C for 30 minutes was required to induce the first signs of DNA degradation in dried blood and saliva stains, reflected by reduced post-PCR DNA detection or drop-out of longer amplicons. There were no interpretable DNA products when heat treatment increased to 200 °C. Similar degraded DNA effects were observed in 27% of stains placed on and within smokelesspowder-charged pipe bombs, but no sign of degradation was observed with the more energetic C4 explosive, probably because of the shorter duration of heat exposure. DNA degradation poses challenges to the interpretation of retrieved genetic data. These challenges were investigated both in real profiles from heat-treated samples, and in simulated data. In addition, a real case of an unidentified male victim (the Blazing Car Murder 1931) was analysed. The combination of real and simulated data provided realistic scenarios, but also allowed control of parameters which affect evidential strength such as population size and diversity, through lowering of the likelihood ratio and increasing the number of random matches in a database.

Background: Understanding attitudes towards men who have sexually offended has been a research interest for many years. The existing research provides inconsistent findings, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding the factors that are related to the attitudes that people hold towards men who sexually offend. This is an important area to understand, both for society, and for institutions that detain men who have sexually offended. Attitudes towards men who have sexually offended is related to the way in which the men engage in therapeutic treatment and also the way in which they can be successfully re-integrated into society. The thesis is motivated by a need to better understand the factors that are associated with the attitudes that people hold towards men who sexually offend and what changes are required to clinical practice to make positive improvements. Though each chapter is presented in sequence, they can be regarded as four independent studies, each of which utilise a different methodological design but are thematically linked. Aims and Objectives: The overarching aim of the thesis is to further explore the factors that are associated with attitudes towards men who sexually offend and the effect that attitudes have on rehabilitation and re-integration. The four research questions were; 1. What does existing literature tell us about staff attitudes towards men who have sexually offended? How do these attitudes impact on the care and treatment provided? 2. Do the attitudes towards men who have sexually offended of forensic healthcare staff and the general public differ based on gender, levels of exposure and duration of exposure? 3. Is the Attitudes towards Sex Offenders Scale (ATS; Hogue, 1993) a psychometrically robust tool and should it continue to be so widely used? 4. What are the benefits of taking a narrative humanisation approach to staff training? Is it an effective method to encourage staff to privilege more positive narratives over less positive ones and what impact does it have on clinical practice? Method: Four different research methods were employed to answer the four research questions. A systematic review was conducted to explore the existing literature base and data were synthesised to determine what factors are empirically supported as important in relation to attitudes towards men who sexually offend. An empirical research study was conducted to determine whether any differences were apparent based on gender of participants and the type and the duration of exposure to men who sexually offend. An online questionnaire was employed and data were statistically analysed using t-tests, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc Newman-Keuls analysis. Research question three was answered by critiquing the psychometric properties of the ATS, a tool which has been widely used in the attitudinal literature for many years. Finally, research question four is answered using a case study exploring the effectiveness of a narrative humanisation staff intervention as an alternative to traditional classroom based training. Overall Findings: 1. The systematic review found a number of different factors that were important when considering the attitudes people hold towards men who have sexually offended; exposure, job role and gender. However, it also suggested that many findings were inconsistent between studies. As a result, the aim of chapter three was to further explore the factors. 2. The results from the empirical research study concluded that the gender of the participant did not relate to attitudes towards men who have sexually offended. Exposure was important; the general public who were not generally exposed to men who have sexually offended had significantly more negative attitudes in comparison to professionals and paraprofessionals who were exposed to the offenders in their work. The duration of this exposure did not influence attitudes. 3. The psychometric critique of the ATS suggests that the tool has a number of shortcomings in terms of validity and reliability. Therefore, the ATS may not be the most robust assessment of attitudes because of the way in which it was adapted. Consequently, chapter five utilised alternative attitudinal measurements. 4. The narrative humanisation intervention demonstrates the strength of applied learning tasks to enhance changes in routine practice. A Reliable Change Index (RCI) evidences significant change in the positive attitudes and perceptions of staff when considering men who have sexually offended. Conclusion: A number of factors are relevant when considering the attitudes that people hold towards men who sexually offend. Positive and negative attitudes impact on the care, treatment and re-integration options provided to men who have sexually offended. Enhancing the understanding of the impact of these attitudes allows for changes in therapeutic treatment, including strength-based approaches. It also promotes changes to clinical practice, for example alternative methods of training, whilst maintaining the risk-need-responsivity principles. In addition, it allows for the promotion of positive care to create an environment more conducive to rehabilitation.

Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) have been the standard DNA marker employed in forensic laboratories for more than two decades. Due to the advances in the kit chemistries and separation technologies (capillary electrophoresis (CE) systems), the number of STRs that can be simultaneously typed has grown to 21-26; this provides sufficient confidence in the conclusions of most kinship cases. However, more complex cases (e.g. testing distant relatives, potential mutations, deficient cases or incest cases) or when the target population shows an increased level of consanguinity, the genetic evidence may prove inconclusive. This necessitates testing additional STRs included in supplementary STR kits. Another option is by using Massively Parallel Sequencing (MPS) systems that allow simultaneous sequencing of additional DNA markers. A total 500 samples from the population of Saudi Arabia were collected. Two CE-based STR kits were used: GlobalfilerTM PCR amplification kit (AB, USA) and SureID® 23 comp Human Identification kit (Health Gene Technologies, China) that together allowed 38 aSTRs to be analysed. In addition, as the SureID® 23 comp kit has not been validated either by an independent laboratory or by the manufacturer, the kit was validated following the minimum criteria of the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) and the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM). Moreover, the ForenSeqTM DNA Signature Prep Kit (Verogen) was used to sequence 87 samples and to generate sequence-based data for 122 autosomal markers included in the kit. The project allowed, in total, obtaining size-based data for 136 autosomal markers (42 aSTRs and 94 iiSNPs) and sequence-based data for 122 autosomal markers (28 aSTRs including SE33 and 94 iiSNPs). The data were evaluated for human identification and kinship testing in Saudi Arabia Although GlobalfilerTM kit provided combined match probability (CMP) of 1.42E-26 that is much higher than the kit currently used in Saudi Arabia that has a CMP of 2.23E-18 (Identifiler plus kit), the availability of data for 42 aSTRs allowed other commercially available kits to be evaluated (based on the loci they contain). The study suggests adopting VeriFilerTM Plus (AB) or PowerPlex Fusion 6C system (Promega Corporation, USA) as a standard STR kit that would provide the lowest CMPs (9.26E-29 and 1.03E-29, respectively). Adopting any of the three kits would provide sufficient confidence in most parent-child cases (trio or duo). The validation of the SureID® 23 comp has shown that the kit met the criteria commonly used in forensic genetics laboratories. In addition, the kit can benefit from some developments that were identified by the validation, in particular the addition of extra alleles in the allelic ladder and also to increase the amount of input DNA that can be added to an amplification. The kit can be used if any kinship cases showed inconclusive results with GlobalFilerTM, VeriFilerTM Plus or PowerPlex Fusion 6C allowing 38-40 aSTRs to be analysed. The ForenSeqTM DNA Signature Prep Kit provided CMP of 1.97E-68 and 3.65E-77 for the size and sequencebased data respectively, where 1.24E-37 (size-based data) and 5.6E-41 (sequence-based data) were provided from the iiSNPs alone. The kit can be used when two or three mismatches were suspected to be mutations or when testing distant relationships. The study highlighted 220 syntenic pairs, 46 of which would have significant impact on LR estimation due to lower RFs (< 0.12). The case-specific impact of linkage should be included in the estimation of LRs by using the RFs values estimated in this project.

Introduction: While decomposition and insect succession on land are well understood, much less is known about these processes in aquatic environments. The aim of this thesis is to present a series of studies designed to investigate these processes in the South of England, beginning with a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with various practitioners to assess the need for this type of research to take place. This is followed by a series of field studies recording and comparing decomposition and insect & invertebrate colonisation across different aquatic environments. Overall these studies provide new knowledge about insect succession in freshwater in the South of England, and some steps have been made towards making ocean-based research more accessible for small laboratories. Additionally, research suggests that the main requirements of Senior Investigating Officers (SIOs) is for forensic entomology data to be presented in a way that is easily understandable and usable in casework (unpublished data, Chapter 4), and these studies represent the first steps towards being able to provide data that meets these requirements. Forensic Entomology and Underwater Death Investigation: A Review of its Utilisation and Potential. To assess the need for an investigation into aquatic decomposition, a questionnaire was designed to establish the current scope and utilisation of forensic entomology in aquatic death scene investigations, and was distributed to forensic practitioners and other professionals involved in underwater death investigations. Following this, a focus group was conducted with Senior Investigating Officers and was designed to explore experiences of professionals with more managerial experience. The outcomes suggest that there is considerable scope for use of entomology at aquatic death investigations, but that it is not being used to its full potential. Practitioners welcomed future research and agreed that there is a need for better awareness of entomology, but emphasised the need for better engagement between the forensic scientist and investigator. Influence of Two Enclosed Water Types on Entomological Species. Colonisation in Portsmouth, UK. A pilot study was undertaken to collect some preliminary data and begin to develop a methodology for the in-depth studies. Here, two rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Linnaeus (Lagomorpha: Leporidae) carcasses were decomposed in lidded plastic boxes in an urban garden environment. One box was filled with water and sediment obtained from a local stream and the other was filled with sea water and sand collected from the Solent (Portsmouth, Hampshire, UK). Entomological samples were collected from both carcasses until they were both fully disarticulated (151 days) and the decompositional changes were also monitored. A catalogue of insect specimens is provided. Some initial guidance for collection of entomological specimens from remains found in small enclosed aquatic environments is also proposed. A Preliminary Investigation of Faunal Colonisation of Remains in Open Water. Here, three different approaches for investigating decomposition and insect succession in an ocean environment were tested with a view to providing a methodology appropriate for use by small labs without access to expensive and highly specialised equipment. Method 1 used a modified crayfish pot to enclose a piglet carcass and incorporated a GoProTM camera to monitor decomposition and marine fauna feeding behaviour using timelapse photography. Method 2 made use of a whelk pot to house the carcass and improve the rate of trapping feeding fauna. Finally, method 3 took a combined approach using a lobster pot to both house the piglet carcass and trap feeding fauna, as well as using timelapse photography to monitor decomposition and feeding behaviour. Method 3 was found to yield the largest amount of usable data of the three methods tested, primarily showing an abundance of shore crabs. A Checklist of Arthropods Associated with Piglet Carcasses Decomposing in a Freshwater Pond Environment in Southeast England. In this experiment, four piglet Sus scrofa domesticus Linnaeus (Artiodactyla: Suidae) carcasses were allowed to decompose naturally in a man-made freshwater pond located in a woodland area near Wickham, Hampshire, UK. Throughout the decomposition period, insect specimens were collected and the changes in decomposition state were recorded until the carcasses were fully skeletonised. As with the pilot study, a catalogue of colonising insect species is provided. Effects of Environmental Temperature on Oviposition Behaviour in Three Blow Flies Species of Forensic Importance. Various factors are known to affect blow fly behaviour with respect to oviposition of which temperature is the most significant factor. These variables apply equally in aquatic environments, however much less is known about the processes of decomposition and invertebrate colonisation in these environments. Here, the oviposition behaviour of three species of forensically important blow fly (Calliphora vicina, Calliphora vomitoria and Lucilia sericata,) was studied under controlled laboratory conditions over a range of temperatures (10 to 40°C). Lower temperature thresholds for oviposition of 16°C and 17.5°C were established for C. vomitoria and L. sericata respectively, whilst C. vicina continued to lay eggs at 10°C. C. vomitoria and L. sericata both continued to lay eggs at 40°C, whilst the highest temperature at which oviposition occurred in C. vicina was 35°C. While this study was not conducted in an aquatic environment, it nonetheless provides important background information for understanding insect colonisation of remains in water, where temperatures may be lower than on land.

In criminal investigations, eyewitnesses are often required to construct a facial composite of a previously seen perpetrator to help the police narrow down a pool of suspects. Although research settings have previously indicated that composite identification rates are often low, the development of more recent holistic composite systems has substantially improved naming rates. However, considerably less research has explored other means of improving composite identification. This thesis investigated three strands of research for this purpose. Firstly, it was necessary to determine whether composite construction is a suitable task for eyewitnesses. In Chapter 2, the recognition accuracy of composite constructors and control participants was tested over forensically relevant delays, to determine whether any adverse effects of construction are likely to extend to applied settings. A null effect of composite construction on subsequent line-up performance was found across both a two-day, and ten-week time delay. Following this, ways of improving composite naming rates were investigated. In Chapter 3, the role of individual differences in composite construction was explored, to establish whether some eyewitnesses are better equipped for the task, based on face recognition abilities. In this instance, an individual's performance on two standardised recognition tests did not correspond to the quality of their facial composite. Finally, the role of context in composite identification was investigated. Chapter 4 suggests that composite naming can be increased substantially when contextual information is provided. These results are discussed within the context of applied settings and directions for future research are provided.

Background: Trauma-informed care can be defined as “a system development model that is grounded in and directed by a complete understanding of how trauma exposure affects service user’s neurological, biological, psychological, and social development” (Patterson, 2014). It is widely acknowledged that trauma informed approaches are designed to have a positive influence on both staff and service users. However, there is limited evidence that exists on implementing trauma-informed approaches in service provision. This limited evidence has also focused mainly on the influence of trauma-informed care on service users rather than staff members (Hales et al. 2017). Given the high prevalence of trauma in forensic populations and the fact that staff members are participants in an organisation’s culture and the processes through which services are delivered, it would be important to gain an understanding of how staff members are impacted by the process of moving towards trauma informed care within the NHS context in the UK. Aims: The aim of this study is to provide an in -depth description of the impact of transitioning to a trauma-informed service model on staff working in an inpatient forensic unit in the North of England and the factors that influence the progress of this transition. Method: The study employs a qualitative design and the data were collected via four focus groups comprising of staff members working in the four wards of a female forensic unit. All participants in this study were female. Thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006) was used to analyse the data through a social constructionist epistemology (Burr, 1995). Findings: Four themes were identified: Reconstructing your professional identity; Redefining group dynamics; Navigating new clinical practices; Managing longer term challenges of trauma-informed change. Implications: Implications for policy, practice and research are discussed.

The first appearance of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in forensic science research was in 1984 in the study of post-mortem tissues. Since then, many studies have explored the role of gene expression and its potential applications in forensic science. Some RNA types such as messenger RNA (mRNA) and microRNA (miRNA) have been subject to increasing interest in the forensic science community. It has been shown that analysis of RNA molecules can also be applied to determine the time when a biological stain was deposited at a crime scene, by analysing their stability and degradation rate. Estimating the age of a biological stain can provide essential information to an investigation. This research has analysed the expression and degradation level of different types of body fluidspecific RNA markers, including mRNA and miRNA markers, with the aim of identifying RNA markers that can be used to estimate the age of three types of body fluid (blood, saliva and semen). In this approach, reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) has been utilised using appropriate primers and TaqMan® probes. The relative expression ratio (RER) between different types of body fluid-specific RNA markers was then examined in aged body fluid samples across one-year storage interval, with the aim of developing a method to estimate the age of body fluid stains recovered at crime scenes. Each RNA marker exhibited unique degradation behaviour across ageing time points for blood, saliva and semen samples, with miRNAs showing high stability. Statistically significant correlations were found between the RERs of RNA markers and ageing time points, exhibiting a non-linear relationship. Overall, the RERs of body fluid-specific markers can be considered as apotential method for estimating the age of biological stains, and this has a wide range of applications in forensic science.

This original research was funded institutionally as part of a larger AHRC/RCUK Connected Communities programme grant (AH/K003364/1), 'Creative Practice as Mutual Recovery' (CPMR) which critically investigated how creative practices may afford an opportunity for mutual recovery. The CPMR programme aimed to extend the notion of mental health recovery beyond individual patients to include other participating members, for example, informal carers, healthcare practitioners, volunteers. The notion that creative practices could foster and connect communities to enhance mental health and wellbeing was a central theme to the programme of research. This thesis focuses uniquely on the potential for creative practice to promote mutuality within a forensic mental health setting. The thesis adopts an ethnographic research design congruent with the exploratory nature of the aims of this project. The research design is purposely iterative, exploring the concepts such as creative practice, wellbeing, and the emergent concept of 'mutual recovery' within an interpretivist tradition. The thesis investigates creative practice across three units within one inpatient forensic mental health hospital in the UK. The methods include overt participant observation and semi-structured interviews. The thesis presents an innovative microsociological model for understanding mutuality through creative practices within forensic mental health. This new theoretical model draws on Interaction Ritual Theory to explore the creative practice rituals observed during the fieldwork and to consider their contribution to wellbeing, social connectedness, and mutuality. The observations and interviews established three key contextual features of life which were found to influence creative practices, wellbeing, social connectedness, and mutuality in the forensic setting: a) surveillance, security and risk; b) the emotive environment; and c) boundaried relationships. The study found that mutuality is constrained within the forensic mental health inpatient context. However, it also identified that when hierarchies are less prominent or foregrounded, engagement in creative practices can contribute to the wellbeing of residents and staff and promote social connectedness. This thesis argues that the forensic mental health environment can present challenges to creative practice and notions of mutuality due to a culture of risk, boundaried practices, and highly emotive interactions that occur there. Other societal influences, such as sexism and racism, also present challenges to creative practices and notions of mutuality within the therapeutic setting.

Recently, collection of sequence data has become increasingly rapid and cost-efficient, prompting much research into using this kind of data in the analysis of infectious diseases. There is currently substantial interest in developing epidemic model frameworks which can incorporate this new abundance of data. Whole-genome sequence (WGS) data reveal to us the unique construction- the 'fingerprint'- of the DNA of a sample pathogen. These high resolution data introduce the possibility that we may be able to discover who infected whom in an epidemic outbreak, allowing us to better understand transmission dynamics and therefore design improved preventative and intervention measures. WGS data may prove useful in understanding how levels of infectiousness and susceptibility vary between individuals in a population, or patients on a hospital ward. Genetic data are becoming increasingly widely available, and it is now possible to sequence isolates of some pathogens in real-time in the field with mobile sequencing technologies. Therefore, developing the models and methods to best exploit this is of considerable importance. The first focus of the research presented here is on antibiotic-resistant nosocomial infections, or 'hospital superbugs', as these still pose a significant problem in hospitals, especially in developing countries. Antibiotic resistance is estimated to kill 700 thousand people globally every year. Current public focus on the threat of an 'antibiotic apocalypse' focuses on the need to reduce the overuse of antibiotics, but another important strategy is to better understand the transmission of such pathogens in order that better prevention and intervention strategies can be designed. Hospital wards present a unique environment, data from which require their own models and methods to analyse outbreaks of infectious disease. Initial research in this thesis has concentrated on outbreaks of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), as it is the most widespread and most common antibiotic-resistant nosocomial infection. In this thesis, discrete-time stochastic epidemic models are developed which can be used to analyse both epidemiological and genetic data from an outbreak of MRSA on a hospital ward. These new models can be used to estimate routes of transmission through the hospital ward on the level of individual transmission events by harnessing the information available in the genetic distances between isolate sequences taken from colonised patients. The unobserved transmission dynamics in the models can be inferred using Bayesian inference in a data-augmented MCMC algorithm. Although techniques have been developed to assess the goodness-of-fit of epidemic models in Bayesian settings, they do not assess how well a model fits the genetic data. Methods for doing so are developed in this thesis. An outbreak of MRSA is analysed using the presented models, and the new goodness-of-fit techniques are used to suggest ways to improve the fit of models. The ideas behind the models for genetic data from MRSA outbreaks are also applicable to other epidemic outbreaks for which genetic data are available. In this thesis we present continuous-time stochastic epidemic models for the spread of avian influenza. These models have a spatial aspect and can be used to estimate the transmission events between farms by analysing genetic and epidemiological data from each farm. Avian influenza is carried endemically by wild birds, so it is very difficult to prevent outbreaks entirely. Therefore, it is very useful to better understand the transmission dynamics of outbreaks and to be able to make predictions about the course of a future epidemic. The combined analysis of both epidemiological and genetic data through novel models and methods allows transmission of pathogens in epidemic outbreaks to be investigated on the level of individuals in the population. This can have a great public health impact, as results about the routes of infection can inform prevention and control measures.

This thesis provides a broad investigation into the issue of burnout in forensic hospital workers. The methods used include a critical review of a psychometric measure, a systematic review, a quantitative research study and a qualitative research study. To begin with, a critique of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Maslach et al., 1996) assessed the psychometric properties of the tool, its applicability within occupational settings and its research use. The MBI is an assessment measure, used in many of the studies included in the systematic review and also in the quantitative research study. A number of limitations of the MBI were highlighted, including its self-report nature and the ongoing controversy regarding the number of dimensions that the MBI encompasses. However, the MBI has regularly demonstrated excellent levels of reliability and validity across a range of samples, cultures and professions. Therefore, it is concluded that the MBI is an effective tool for measuring burnout across a range of occupational settings. A systematic review of the existing literature identified a number of different risk factors for burnout in forensic hospital workers. Many variances were observed across studies, however, some commonalities were detected and the risk factors identified were grouped into four separate sub-categories: organisational/occupational factors, clinical factors, personal and individual factors and feeling detached from the outside world. The quantitative research study investigated the level of burnout experienced in a sample of 173 forensic hospital workers and the risk factors which may predict the development of burnout. When the results were compared to the normative data, it became apparent that participants were reporting higher than average levels of burnout. Moreover, quantitative outcome measures also yielded some statistically significant results regarding the associated risk factors for burnout, which included gender, age, length of time at the organisation, job role, children and level of education. Ward level of security and client group were also considered in relation to staff burnout. The clinical implications and the research implications of the findings are both discussed, with the findings of the study providing ideas and directions for future research. The qualitative research study explored the experiences of 12 forensic hospital workers using thematic analysis. The data analysis yielded ten sub-themes, grouped under five superordinate themes, which were all perceived to contribute to feelings of stress and burnout at work. The themes identified through the data analysis included: inadequate resources (difficulty accessing support and training needs), the daily chaos (the nature of working with forensic patients and running the ward), no sense of community (problematic relationships with colleagues and a fractured team), consequences of the job (impact on my personal life and impact on my health) and rewarding our efforts (limited recognition and why I still do it). The findings are discussed in terms of practical implications for the organisation and a number of interventions to reduce burnout in forensic hospital staff are also suggested.

Consumption and distribution of pornographic material is vast and a cross-cultural phenomenon. The exploration of the effects of pornography on attitudes has revealed that this material causes a range of effects amongst its male consumers, including stereotypical sex-role beliefs, anti-women thought and adherence to rape myths. This paper used a classic pre-posttest design to elucidate what effects this material has on female participants (N= 242). Through the use of the Attitudes towards Women Scale and the Attitudes toward Men scale it was found that females did not experience significant attitude changes towards other females, upon exposure. However, they do show changes in their hostile male beliefs for clips depicting sexual aggression, and benevolent beliefs for clips depicting a flirtatious interaction, a romantic erotic scene, and, for a scene depicting rape. These findings are reviewed and discussed in light of the Gender-Schema Theory, Sexual Objectification Theory and Empathetic Viewer Theory.

Over the last thirty years, academics have focused attention on the ambiguity surrounding what constitutes a gang as well as the engagement factors for joining a street gang. Whilst the rehabilitation of street gang offenders and understanding the reasons to desist from this lifestyle is paramount to counteract the effects of gang membership, less attention has been given to these areas. The first chapter discusses some of the definitional issues that have arisen from exploring gang phenomenon and a historical account of the theories that underpin gang membership. The second chapter introduces the first systematic literature review to have been undertaken on gang disengagement in order to understand the factors which increase the likelihood that an individual will leave a gang. This review highlighted that there is not one definitive reason as to why individuals choose to leave and a range of factors are detailed. An empirical project is presented in Chapter 3; with the first study focusing on the impact two generalised violent offender behaviour programmes (RESOLVE and Self Change Programme; SCP) had on both adult violent gang and adult violent non-gang offenders. Findings suggested that both sets of RESOLVE participants were found to have made treatment gains for impulsivity, anger and aggression, and treatment readiness. A statistically significant difference was observed for vengeful thinking, with gang participants showing a greater change in scores. SCP data showed statistically significant differences post treatment with lower levels of impulsivity, anger, vengeful thinking and beliefs supportive of aggression and an increase in treatment readiness. For non-gang participants, statistically significant differences were found post treatment for impulsivity and aggression. No significant interaction was observed between offender typologies, suggesting that the two groups have similar presentations. The second study explored the views of gang members who had completed either of the programmes mentioned in order to gain further insight into gang membership. Three major themes emerged which centred on what a street gang is; motivators to join; and motivators to disengage. The results are discussed with reference to current practice, the limitations, and recommendations for further research. Chapter 4 presents a critical analysis of the Psychological Inventory for Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS, Walters, 1990). Although the PICTS continues to be used for research purposes and within forensic practice, the review found that caution should be exercised in its use and preferably in conjunction with other measures. This was partially due to the need for further independent research being needed across different cultural samples and the reported reliability and validity. The thesis conclusions are presented in Chapter 5 with reference made to the need for further research into gang membership, especially within the UK.

There is accumulating evidence on differences in the link between types of dairy products and cardio-metabolic health, but inconsistent findings limit the field. In my PhD project, I undertook an epidemiological investigation comprising inter-related but distinct themes evaluating aspects of nutritional, molecular and genetic epidemiology to advance scientific understanding. I undertook research to describe dairy consumption patterns over time by evaluating nationally-representative data of the United Kingdom National Diet and Nutrition Survey. I observed significant time trends for specific dairy types and groups, which were different among different groups of people e.g. adults younger than 65 years or elderly people. Using data from the large Fenland (n~12,000) and EPIC Norfolk (n~25,000) studies, I investigated associations of total and types of dairy consumption with markers of metabolic risk and adiposity as potential pathways to cardio-metabolic disease. The analyses showed differential associations of dairy types and groups mainly with markers of adiposity and lipidaemia. I explored the potential of objective markers to assess dairy consumption, by examining metabolomics profiles and blood fatty acids to identify a set of biomarkers predicting dairy consumption and prospective associations of the identified biomarkers with type 2 diabetes risk. I was able to develop and validate metabolite scores reflecting consumption of some dairy products and observed inverse associations between some of these scores and type 2 diabetes incidence. I analysed genetic determinants of dairy consumption, using a genome-wide association study in the UK Biobank (n~500,000) and identified single nucleotide polymorphisms predicting milk, cheese and total dairy consumption. Overall, this PhD work contributed towards (1) a more precise description of dairy consumption patterns in the UK, (2) hypothesis formulation for potential biological pathways linking to cardio-metabolic disease, (3) discovery of metabolite scores as potential dairy biomarkers and (4) hypothesis formulation for potential genetic predictors of dairy consumption.

Influenza A viruses (IAV) are a major group of pathogens that infect a broad range of mammalian and avian species and in humans, cause of annual epidemics and occasional pandemics. IAVs are orthomyxoviruses containing an 8 segment negativesense single-stranded RNA genome encoding 10 core polypeptides essential for virus replication. Alternative translation events that produce additional viral polypeptides have been shown to be significant in IAV biology. IAV genome segment 2 is a virulence determinant known to encode PB1, PB1- F2 and PB1-N40 proteins, starting from AUG codons 1, 4 and 5 respectively. Work in this thesis investigated the expression of two additional polypeptides, arising from translation initiation at AUGs 10 and 11 of segment 2. These codons are highly conserved in IAV and direct the translation of two N-terminally truncated versions of the primary PB1 product (PB1-N92 and -N111 respectively). Mutation of AUGs 10 or 11 in the background of the A/PR/8/34 strain had minor effects on virus replication kinetics despite giving elevated levels of IRF3 phosphorylation and type I IFN secretion compared to the WT virus. However, simultaneous mutation of AUGs 10 and 11 severely decreased viral fitness. Similar patterns of defective replication and elevated innate signalling were seen when mutating AUGs 10 and/or 11 in other mammalian virus isolates. The propagation deficit of the PR8 ΔAUG10,11 mutant recovered in IFN-deficient models, including IFN α/β receptor (IFNAR) knockout bone marrow-derived macrophages and in vivo in IFNAR-/- mouse lungs. Moreover, expression of PB1-N92 or -N111 polypeptides blocked poly I:C- and TBK1-, but not IRF3-induced activation of the IFN-β promoter in transfected cells, suggesting the polypeptides blocked innate immune signalling downstream of RIG-I-like receptor signalling but upstream of IRF3 phosphorylation. Consistent with this, addition of a TBK1/IKKε inhibitor increased growth of the mutant viruses. In conclusion, IAV segment 2 expresses two previously undescribed Nterminally truncated versions of PB1 which play a role in antagonising the host IFN response, most likely at the stage of the TBK1/IKKε complex.

This thesis is completed in accordance with the academic component, in part fulfilment, of the Doctorate in Clinical Psychology at the University of Edinburgh. Following the research portfolio structure, a thesis abstract is presented. This is followed by a lay summary of the background, methods, results and conclusion sections of the presented projects. Chapter One illustrates a systematic review which examines instruments that assess complex trauma related symptoms in adult populations. Chapter Two describes an empirical study exploring what a best practice framework may entail when working with male populations detained in secure forensic mental health hospital settings. The reporting of the empirical study and the systematic review have been prepared for submission to the International Journal of Forensic Mental Health and the Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, respectively. The reporting format of both projects has followed the journal author guidelines, a summary of which has been included in Appendix F. Background: Exposure to adverse experiences, particularly those considered more repetitive and enduring (such as sexual abuse and neglect) has been associated to negative mental health outcomes including complex trauma. Though assessment tools to capture complex trauma-related symptomology have been developed, a systematic review of these measures does not appear to have been completed. Furthermore, researchers have argued for the better detection and intervention of trauma-related presentations in male populations detained in secure forensic mental health settings. Improved awareness in this area is likely to help inform treatment and rehabilitation delivery for this population. Method: A systematic review critically appraised the methodological and psychometric features of instruments assessing a range of complex trauma-related symptoms. The empirical study attempted to explore how such features may be understood, detected and responded to in clinical settings. Using a Delphi process, the empirical study investigated consensus among practitioner psychologists in the United Kingdom with expertise in working with male populations detained in secure forensic mental health settings. Through an online survey format, the study involved three rounds of data collection to assess consensus on what a best practice framework may entail when detecting and working with trauma in this population. Data from the open-ended questions in Round I was assessed using qualitative analysis. This generated a number of statements upon which consensus was explored; the respondents were required to rate their agreement with the statements in Round II and III of the survey. Results: The instruments identified from the systematic review, measuring complex trauma-related symptomology, had been subjected to some degree of evaluation regarding their validity and reliability. Views of the psychologists in the empirical study indicated consensus regarding several elements that may be considered best practice in relation to working with trauma in male populations detained in secure forensic mental health settings. These related to: a range of presentations that may indicate the need for a trauma assessment; trauma-related intervention goals in light of both mental health and criminogenic needs; training and guideline recommendations. The results also indicated however, more varied views about the theoretical models that underpinned their clinical practice and the interventions employed. Conclusion: From the systematic review, no measure was assessed to be better than the others at capturing complex trauma-related presentations, though the purpose of its use is likely to impact why one would be preferable to another (e.g. screening versus outcome monitoring). Interestingly, the more recently published measures appear to have been developed for diagnostic requirements. The empirical study identified several considerations for a best practice framework in relation to working with trauma in male populations detained in secure forensic mental health settings. Further exploration and guidance for implementing trauma-specific interventions in these settings, with individuals presenting with multiple complex needs (e.g. including mental health and criminogenic), may be warranted.

At present, the analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from fragrances is not employed in forensic science despite its potential as a form of trace evidence. Perfumes are used by many men and women on a daily basis, contain a large and diverse number of fragrances, and are invisible to the naked eye. Moreover, research on VOCs from human scent has shown that solid phase microextraction (SPME) with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a robust method for the analysis of these odorous compounds. This enables insights into the transfer and persistence of the VOCs, which is a prerequisite for the use of a trace in forensic reconstructions. This thesis presents the development, optimisation, and validation of a SPME GC-MS method for quantification of VOC traces from clothing. The method created was robust and sensitive, allowing quantification of VOCs from clothing even when the fragrance mixture was diluted up to 1500 times. Experiments that addressed the transfer characteristics of fragrance VOCs demonstrated that fragrances can transfer from one fabric to another even when the contact times between fabrics is as short as 10 s, and even when the perfume was aged on the primary fabric for as long as 48 h before transfer took place. The nature of the fragrance transfer also depended on the fabric type, so that a clear discrimination was observed between the transfer that occurred from a cotton fabric swatch onto a natural (cotton) fabric and onto a synthetic (polyester) fabric. Further experiments considered the persistence of fragrances. The data generated indicate that the highest VOC amounts are generally obtained from recipient fabrics after shorter persistence times of up to 1 d, however VOCs were successfully quantified for persistence times of up to 4 weeks. Lower environmental temperatures resulted in higher recoveries for most VOCs, especially for short persistence times. These findings demonstrate that the optimal recovery of VOCs from clothing occurs when the fabric is kept at cooler temperatures and analysed soon after the fragrance transfer occurred. Therefore, given the ability to recover VOCs from fragrances from clothing, and the transfer and persistence characteristics of these VOCs, there is potential for fragrance to be used as a form of trace in forensic reconstruction approaches to address both source and activity level propositions.